SECTION: FEMALE SLOW REPRODUCTIVE RATE

From Drmills

Contents 1 SLOW REPRODUCTIVE RATE: HUMAN FEMALE PSYCHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS 1.1 FEMALE PROBLEM:  SELECTING A GOOD GENETIC PARTNER 1.1.1 POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS: 1.1.1.1 Looking for good genes 1.1.1.2 Variations Across the Menstrual Cycle 1.1.2 Avoiding Incestuous Matings 1.1.3 Inbreeding Versus Outbreeding? 1.1.4 Odor Detection, Mate Selction and the Pill 1.1.5 The MHC and the Immune System 1.1.6 The Pill 1.1.6.1 Looking for Signs of Good Health 1.1.6.2 Good Looks as a Sign of Good Genes 1.2 FEMALE PROBLEM: SELECTING A GOOD SOCIAL PARTNER 1.2.1 POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS: 1.2.2 Looking for Good Behavior 1.2.3 Look for Males Who are Willing to Commit to a Long-term Relationship 1.2.4 Female Evolutionary Guidelines to Choosing a Long-Term Mate 1.2.4.1 Put Suitors Through ’Tests’ to Assess Their Degree of Commitment 1.2.4.2 Make Sure the Male Considers You to be ’Special’ 1.2.4.3 Sham Detection 1.2.4.4 Make Sure a Male is Not Secretly Committed to Another Woman, or is Unwilling to Break Former Commitments 1.2.4.5 Getting Males to Compete (Choose the Winner) 1.2.4.6 Evaluating Male Status and Dominance 1.2.4.7 Older Males 1.2.4.8 Good Looks as Related to Male Status 1.2.4.9 Looking for Males With Good Social Skills and Intelligence 1.2.4.10 Reserving Sexuality to a Relationship Context 1.2.4.11 Looking for males that other females find attractive (’sexy son hypothesis’) 1.2.5 SOME POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES: 1.2.5.1 Hypergamy 1.2.5.2 Being too selective 1.2.5.2.1 The Cinderella Complex 1.2.5.3 Female perception of a shortage of good husband material 1.2.5.4 The ’groupie’ phenomenon 1.3 FEMALE PROBLEM: ATTRACTING THE BEST POSSIBLE MALE 1.3.1 POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS: 1.3.1.1 Arousing male sexual interest to initiate a relationship 1.3.1.1.1 Flirting Behaviors 1.3.1.1.2 Pheromones 1.3.1.2 Protecting one’s ’reputation’ 1.3.1.3 Sneaky Strategy: Using cosmetics and/or cosmetic surgery 1.3.1.4 Sneaky Strategy: Stealing or having an affair another woman’s husband / boyfriend 1.4 PROBLEM: FEMALE-FEMALE COMPETITION FOR MATES 1.4.1 Female-female aggression 1.4.2 Verbal derogation of rivals 1.5 FEMALE PROBLEM: DIVERTING MALE PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL AGGRESSION 1.5.1 POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS: 1.5.1.1 Reducing aggressive signals / displaying receptivity and/or vulnerability 1.5.1.2 Female coalitions 1.5.1.3 Using male kin, friends or mate as a "bodyguard" 1.5.1.4 Possible anti-rape adaptations 1.5.1.5 Enforcing penalties for sexual harassment and rape 1.6 FEMALE PROBLEM: GETTING A PREFERRED MALE TO COMMIT TO A LONG TERM RELATIONSHIP 1.6.1 POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS: 1.7 FEMALE PROBLEM: GETTING A MALE(S) TO INVEST IN HER OFFSPRING 1.7.1 POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS: 1.7.1.1 Finding resource-rich males attractive 1.7.1.2 Finding potentially ’good father’ behavior attractive 1.7.1.3 Enforcing a long courtship before copulation 1.7.1.4 Keeping mate from straying 1.7.1.5 Assuring your partner that he is the father of your children 1.7.1.6 Soliciting gifts 1.7.1.7 Courtship Feeding 1.7.1.8 Sneaky solution: cuckoldry 1.7.1.9 Sneaky solution: confusing paternity among several males 1.7.1.10 Being a mistress, a ’kept woman’ 1.7.1.11 Promiscuity 1.7.1.12 Prostitution

SLOW REPRODUCTIVE RATE: HUMAN FEMALE PSYCHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS

Due to the vast differences between men and women's reproductive variance and paternity investment, females have a much larger cost associated with poor mating choices. Obviously women should choose well, but let's face it, with the reports of a 50% divorce rate and the constant bombardment of celebrity break-ups int he tabloids, it seems that not all women are making great choices. How is it then that women both ancestrally and in modern environments have been able to minimize the potential negative costs associated with mating?

The basic approach that has been taken in explaining female mate choice has been to focus on the differnet qualities that men display in relation to being a "good parent" and "good genes". At an intuitive level this sort of a dichotomy makes sense. Women can either increase their fitness indirectly by attracting a male with plentiful resources, who is willing to invest in her children (i.e. a good parent), or directly by producing a child with a man who has high-quality genes (low deleterious mutation load), thus producing a robust, good-genes child. Researchers typically write as if these traits are mutually exclusive; a woman chooses a "good parent" or a "good genes" guy. However, contemporary research has shown that some of the mental traits that show good parenting ability (e.g. intelligence, agreeableness) may be the result of underlying genetic quality (see Miller, 2001, for review).

When females are looking for their ideal male, they look for many qualities, all which revolve around the fact that they want their offspring to have a good chance of being passed on the good genes so that they may be successful in life. In most cases it is the female that must invest the most time and effort in her offspring and this is why they take great care and time when it comes to choosing their mate. As research by Gavrilets, Arnqvist and Friberg (2001) has shown, “Traditional explanations of costly female mate choice are cast in terms of indirect genetic benefits.” Females are on the hunt for certain characteristics or behaviors that may signal their superiority in the hopes that these characteristics will be passed on to their offspring" (p.532).       There have been studies that show that it is the males which carry the genes that code for sexual attractiveness and so females must learn how to spot these traits that signal off whether or not a male carries these ‘good genes’. As was seen in the peacock example, many females look for high ornamentation in males as a sign of a potentially good mate. Qvarnstrom, Brommer, and Gustafsson (2006) have shown that, “Females with high preference mate with highly ornamented males, thereby creating a genetic correlation between mate choice and ornament” (p. 742). This study, which researched flycatchers, found that females have criteria when it comes to choosing their mates, such as a large forehead patch. Some of the criteria that they use has been shown to increase fitness for offspring, “Forehead patch size has also been directly implicated in a good-genes process…and therefore have higher survival chances than within-pair offspring.” ( Qvastrom, Brommer, &amp; Gustafsson 2006, p. 745) Many of the characteristics that the females look for in males have been shown to create higher chances for survival and that is why females prefer these.      In the continuing process of the search for the ideal mate, the female must assess which male is the one that is best suited for her needs, and the needs of her future offspring. Kruger (2006) found that women look for men that have masculine faces because to them it is a sign that they are successful in their environment. They found that, “Male masculinity may be used as a cue in female mate choice, as it reflects the success of the male genotype in the developmental environment" (p. 452). The reason for this is that moderate to high degrees of masculinity may indicate better intelligence and health then low masculinity, so women tend to be interested in partners with these features because they wish for these characteristics to be passed on to their offspring. This study also found that sometimes women chose the mates with moderate levels of masculinity because those that are high in it have been show to not have high parental investment.      It may be interesting to note that it is because of the female mate choice that males have learned to display these characteristics that would capture the attention of the females. The males are in constant competition to win the attention of the males and thus they act in ways that would signal that they are strong or they show off the things that show that they have ‘good genes’ to pass on to their offspring. The males must know what attracts the females because research has shown that not all females respond the same or are looking for the same thing, even within the same species. Research that was done with bowerbirds, showed that females look for different traits depending on their age/experience. (Coleman, Patricelli, &amp; Borgia 2004, p. 743).  For this species, female mate choice is a process that occurs in stages, and it has shown that the mate choice is age-specific.      Female mate choice has been shown to be one of the evolutionary driving forces for male behaviors as well as their trait characteristics. The process of mate selection takes effort on the part of the females because they are looking for a partner that will reproduce offspring with high fitness as well as a partner with parental investment, thus increasing the offspring’s chance for survival. The various female mating strategies are the cause for the varying behaviors of the males, which are each catered toward the specific need requirements from the females (Coleman, Patricelli, &amp; Borgia 2004, p. 744). It is because of the complexity of female mate choice that there is such diversity in male sexual displays. References: Coleman, S., Patricelli, G., &amp; Borgia. (2004). Variable female perfernces drive complex male displays. Nature', 428, 742-750. </span Gavrilets, S., Arnqvist G., &amp; Friberg, U. (2001). The evolution of female mate choice by sexual conflict. The Royal Society, 268, 531-539. Kruger, D. (2006). Male masculinity influences attributions of personality and reproductive strategy. Personal Relationships, 13, 451-463. Qvasrnstrom, A., Brommer, J., &amp; Gustafsson, L. (2006). Testing the genetics underlying the co-evolution of mate choice and ornament in the wild. Nature, 441, 84-88. Additional Links (for articles and graphs) 1. The evolution of female mate choice by sexual conflict<br>http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1088637&amp;blobtype=pdf 2. Male facial masculinity influences attributions of personality and reproductive strategy<br>http://linus.lmu.edu/search~S1?/Xpsycinfo&amp;SORT=D/Xpsycinfo&amp;SORT=D&amp;SUBKEY=psycinfo/1,9,9,B/l856~b1200166&amp;FF=Xpsycinfo&amp;SORT=D&amp;1,1,,1,0 3. Testing the genetics underlying the co-evolution of mate choice and ornament in the wild<br>http://linus.lmu.edu/search~S1?/Xpsycinfo&amp;SORT=D/Xpsycinfo&amp;SORT=D&amp;SUBKEY=psycinfo/1,9,9,B/l856~b1200166&amp;FF=Xpsycinfo&amp;SORT=D&amp;1,1,,1,0 4. Variable female preferences drive complex male displays <br>http://linus.lmu.edu/search~S1?/Xpsycinfo&amp;SORT=D/Xpsycinfo&amp;SORT=D&amp;SUBKEY=psycinfo/1,9,9,B/l856~b1200166&amp;FF=Xpsycinfo&amp;SORT=D&amp;1,1,,1,0

FEMALE PROBLEM:  SELECTING A GOOD GENETIC PARTNER

POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS:

Looking for good genes

While it may be impossible to visually distinguish heritable qualities from nonheritable qualities, it is in females’ reproductive interest to assume a genetic component to many human traits. Selective females choose mates that display, through various venues, superior genes. This is done in the hope (conscious or not) that these superior qualities will be inherited by her offspring, who will in turn reproduce successfully.

Females are faced with a myriad of reproductive problems, puzzles, and issues when it comes to finding a suitable mate. Females must not only search a partner who is willing to invest in both her and her offspring, she must also determine the genetic quality of the mate she is considering. In order to assess males for genetic compatibility and quality, females have evolved many adaptations that aid them in deciding just how genetically desirable a potential suitor is.

When evaluating a mating opportunity, a female can assess his genes based on three criteria: the genes are viable, diverse, and compatible. Mays and Hills (2004) conducted research that suggests that both human and animal females judge the genetic material of males based on these three qualities. A female may not only be wondering if a male has viable and healthy genes, but whether these genes will be diverse enough to resist pathogens and also be compatible with her own genetic material. Their research seems to point to the possibility that females may choose a mate based on various evaluations of these three genetic “tests”. A male may have healthy genes, but if they are not genetically diverse enough from the female’s, any sired offspring may have less chance of survival. A female must make a complicated decision weighing all three of these genetic factors.

There are great genetic payoffs if a female chooses a male with viable, diverse, and compatible genes. Her offspring have a much higher chance of survival and adaptability to changing environments if their genes are more robust and diverse. In genetic and mate-choice research conducted by Nell and Pitcher (2005), it was found that offspring mortality rate was much higher for mating partners that were of low genetic quality or whose genes were not different enough from those of the female. In one study, offspring rendered from a preferred genetic partner had as much as a 30% better chance of survival than offspring born of a nonpreferred genetic partner. In both the human and the animal world, better and more compatible genes can drastically alter the odds of offspring survival. A bad genetic mating choice can mean the death of a female’s offspring and a great waste of maternal resources spent on unviable children.

Since the genetic payoffs for mating with a good genetic partner can be so high, it would naturally follow that females would be very adept at spotting a good genetic catch and match. In many species (including humans), males can send off very clear signals or “advertisements” that alert the female of their genetic quality. In humans, these advertisements can include good skin, healthy hair, physical symmetry, and different scents. In 1998 Westneat and Birkhead discussed how these advertisements can directly allude to a male’s genetic quality. They propose that if a male has the energy and resources to put into these advertisements, his immune system must be healthy enough to multitask. A male must put resources into both fighting off pathogens and advertisements to attract a mate. Females have learned to infer that if a male has been able to maintain his sexual advertisements, then that male must have a decent enough immune system and set of genes to survive in his environment; he then must be suitable as a mating partner, since his offspring will inherent both of these abilities.

Human females have additional evolutionary adaptations that allow them to assess a male’s genetic quality. Two of the most prominent indicators of a human male’s genetic quality and compatibility are scent and symmetry. Women are most attracted to men that emit scents indicating they have healthy immune systems. Women are also highly attracted to men whose smells indicate their immune systems are different, and thus diverse, from the women’s. Two genetically diverse immune systems insure the best chance of survival from pathogens for a human child, since he or she will have more antibodies and genetic variations. Scheib, Gangestad, and Thornhill (1999) researched facial symmetry and the attractiveness of men based on their level of symmetry. They discovered that women found men with symmetrical faces most attractive; thus facial symmetry can be used as a cue by females in order to determine the genetic attractiveness of a male. Gangestad and Thornhill (1998) also discovered that females were most attracted by the scent of men with symmetrical faces during the fertile phase of their menstrual cycle. Women have evolved adaptations, such as scent recognition, that aid them in choosing a good genetic partner. It makes sense that women are more sensitive and attracted to genetic quality when they are fertile, since any offspring sired during this time will have the genetic material of the mate chosen by the woman.

Source: http://anthropologynet.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/

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Topic: Female Preference for Tall Males

Contributer: Rachel Anderson

Class: Psyc 452, Fall 2009

 Sexual selection in humans is an evolutionary process by which specific traits in one sex are preferred and selected by members of the other sex. Female humans seek out mates who demonstrate or advertise in some way their evolutionary fitness, or ability to contribute healthy genes to potential offspring. Height, or stature, is one such sexually dimorphic trait that has been empirically studied and shows strongly correlations to many advantages for males. That is, human females have been shown to prefer taller males as dating and mating partners (Pawlowski, Dunbar, & Lipowicz, 2000; Nettle, 2002; Brewer & Riley, 2009; Pawlowski, 2003; Fink, Neave, Brewer, & Pawlowski, 2007). Taller males are reproductively more successful than shorter males (Pawlowski et al., 2000), are better able to attract mates, have more different long-term partners on average, are significantly less likely to be childless (Nettle, 2002), and report greater relationship satisfaction and lower levels of jealousy (Brewer & Riley, 2009). While absolute height is often considered when assessing the advantages of being a tall male, relative height has also been shown to be a significant factor in choosing a viable mate for reproducing (Pawlowski, 2003; Fink et al., 2007).

 Consistently in Western societies, women report finding taller men more attractive than shorter men (Brewer & Riley, 2009; Nettle, 2002). Overall, taller men are more reproductively successful than shorter men. Childless men are significantly shorter than those who have at least one child, even when all other variables are held constant. Thus it was additionally found that taller men were significantly less likely to be childless than shorter men (Nettle, 2002). This effect of height on reproductive output is thought to be due to shorter men being disadvantaged in the search for a mate, which is supported by the fact that bachelors in one study were significantly shorter than married men (Pawlowski, Dunbar, & Lipowicz, 2000).

The high mate value of taller men provides additional advantages to such individuals. For example a study conducted in the UK found that tall men reported greater relationship satisfaction and lower levels of jealous cognitions, such as suspicion or concern, and jealous behavior (Brewer & Riley, 2009).That tall men experience greater relationship satisfaction is consistent with research that suggests women are intrinsically attracted to tall men and would rather be in a relationship in which the male is taller (Nettle, 2002). In addition, the greater appeal of tall men is expected to provide them greater access to more attractive women. In turn, tall men are partnered with highly desirable women, which may account for their greater relationship satisfaction. Jealousy and jealous behaviors are also differentiated in males by height. Shorter males report greater jealous cognitions and behaviors than taller males. Since females hold a preference for tall males, they stand less risk of cuckoldry or desertion. On the other hand, short males should tend to experience greater jealousy to protect and alert against possible partner infidelity (Brewer & Riley, 2009).

An extensive medical and sociological study conducted in the UK of over ten thousand individuals born in the same week in the year 1958 provides strong evidence of the height preference and advantages therein (Nettle, 2002). When this cohort was broken into quartiles based on height, it was found that as height increases, men have an increasing number of different long term partners on average. Conversely, men in the lowest quartile were more likely to report no relationships. Additionally, research on this large cohort found that men in the higher social classes were taller than others. However, it is unclear whether these differences exists because men who were born into more privileged social classes became taller due to better health and nutrition, or because taller men could be more successful occupationally and move up in class (Nettle, 2002). Either way, height may be a demonstration of both power and greater wealth, thus it is a clear advantage for males to be tall and for females to prefer them.

While absolute height has been abundantly studied and established as an adaptively preferred trait, relative height may also be an important mate-choice criterion. It has been found that people adjust their preferences for sexual dimorphism in stature (SDS is found by male height divided by female height) in relation to their own height (Pawlowski, 2003; Fink, Neave, Brewer, & Pawlowski, 2007). This adjustment in height preference may be an attempt to increase the potential pool of mating partners (Fink et al., 2007). The results of a study in which males and females are shown six pairs of human outlines with different levels of SDS indicates that both males and females adjust their preferences for the difference in height between partners to reflect their own stature. The mechanism that may regulate desired SDS should increase one’s chances of getting a partner by preferring members of the opposite sex whose height comes closest to the population mean for that sex, and finding a partner whose difference in stature from oneself approximates the mean population SDS (Pawlowski, 2003). 

1. Six pairs of human outlines with different levels of sexual dimorphism in size (A = 1.19, B = 1.14, C = 1.09,
1.04, E = 1.0, F = 0.96). (Pawlowski, 2003).

Variability in height continues to be maintained in the population and exists despite a sexually selected preference for taller males. Positive selection on taller-than-average males and negative selection on extremely tall males allows polymorphism in genes associated with tallness to persist, and in turn heritability remains high (Nettle, 2002). In fact, relatively taller men and relatively shorter women have higher reproductive success. The stabilizing limitations on height in males, and humans in general, include that extremely tall individuals experience significant health issues and mothers are less able to successfully and healthfully birth large babies (which could develop into tall individuals) (Nettle, 2002). Thus while females prefer males who are tall, there are limits to this height. In fact females may adjust the height they desire in a mate to compensate for their own stature, making just above average males plenty tall to contribute the "good genes" that are sought by females.

References: 

Brewer, G. and Riley, C. (2009). Height, relationship satisfaction, jealousy, and mate retention. Evolutionary Psychology, 7(3), 477-489. http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/ep07477489.pdf

Fink, B, Neave, N., Brewer, G., and Pawlowski, B. (2007). Variable preferences for sexual dimorphism in stature (SDS): Further evidence for an adjustment in relation to own height. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 2249-2257. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V9F-4PJD9H1-1&_user=945462&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1121045013&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000048964&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=945462&md5=0406cc270160c2d3e7b90f62792ae4e2 

Nettle, D. (2002) Height and reproductive success in a cohort of British men. Human Nature, 13, 473-491. http://www.springerlink.com/content/p5ty6k1e3a69dp80/fulltext.pdf

Pawlowski, B., (2003). Variable preferences for sexual dimorphism in height as a strategy for increasing the pool of potential partners in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 270, 709-712. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691293/pdf/12713744.pdf

Pawlowski, B., Dunbar, R.I.M., and Lipowicz, A. (2000). Tall men have more reproductive success. Nature, 403, 156. http://www.liv.ac.uk/evolpsyc/Height_Nature.pdf

Relevant Websites:

http://www.shortsupport.org/News/0219.html
http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=123853&page=2

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Variations Across the Menstrual Cycle

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Topic: Women’s Preference For A Mate Across the Menstrual Cycle

Name:  Nikita Hearns

Female and male preference for a potential sexual partner differs based on the evolutionary significance of those characteristics. Age, physical attractiveness, resources, commitment to relationship, or social skills seems to be important for mate choice. Women, however, pay much attention to commitment and resources, while men are usually more focused on physical attractiveness. During a clinical study, it was hypothesized that women with lower values of Body Mass Index and Waist-to-hip ratio (considered more attractive) are more demanding with respect to resources in potential partners, both for long-term relationships and for short-term relationships, more attractive women, compared to less attractive women, are more demanding with respect to the attractiveness of potential partners, both for Long Term Relationships and for Short Term Relationships and lastly they hypothesized women should highly value commitment regardless of their own body types (Pawlowski & Jasienska, 2007). The participants were given a two-page questionnaire and on each page, there were nine short personal advertisements. One page was for long-term relationships and the other was for short-term relationships. The researchers found that women with lower WHR (considered to be more attractive) were more demanding for resources. On the other hand, BMI had no relationship to women's preferences. In regards to their second hypothesis, they observed the reverse; women with a higher WHR expressed a higher preference for male attractiveness. They confirmed their third hypothesis, and a very high preference for commitment seemed to confirm the evolutionary importance of this male trait for women. In line with a woman’s WHR Smith et al. (2009) observed that WHR predicts a women’s preference for masculine faces but not perceptions of men’s trustworthiness. Masculinized versions of digital face images we made by adding 50% of the linear differences in 2D shape between symmetrized male and female prototypes. Feminized versions of the same faces were created the same way with the only difference of subtracting 50% of the linear differences. In addition, the female participant’s waist and hip circumference was measured to calculate their WHR. The female participants completed two face perception tests and were asked to choose which face was more attractive and which one appeared to be most trustworthy. They found that women with a low WHR (feminine, attractive) had a stronger preference for masculine men than did women with relatively high WHR (masculine, unattractive).

A third example of women’s preference for a mate would include a study confirming a stronger attraction for masculine traits. This can been most clearly observed during a women’s menstrual cycle. It is believed that during a woman’s menstrual cycle, she is most attracted to good gene markers during the days of the cycle when conception is possible. Roney & Simmons (2007) took saliva samples and neutral facial expression photographs from 37 men. Seventy-five women whom were not using any hormonal contraceptives rated the photos for physical attractiveness. The women raters also supplied saliva samples, had their estradiol, progesterone and testosterone concentrations measured and filled out a survey regarding the first day of their menstrual cycle. They predicted that women’s estradiol concentrations would predict their preference for the faces of men with higher testosterone levels. Their results confirmed there hypothesis that women with high estradiol concentrations did show stronger preferences for the faces of men with greater testosterone concentrations. But, their progesterone and testosterone concentrations were unrelated. Also, women tested on the most fertile days of their cycle showed a stronger preference for facial cues of men’s testosterone.

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Lastly, Lukaszewski & Roney (2009) estimated that hormones predict a women’s preference for dominant personality traits. The female participants were given a trait preference survey and a menstrual cycle survey. They were also instructed to rate each trait term for importance in evaluating either a partner for a “brief sexual affair” or a committed romantic relationship such as marriage”. On the menstrual cycle survey they were asked to indicate the first day of their last cycle, the estimated number of days until they expected another menstrual cycle and the duration of their typical cycles. There was a positive relationship between estrogen and preferences for dominance. Also, preferences for dominance in long-term mates were elevated on cycle days when estrogen is typically elevated. Furthermore, preference for dominance for short-term mates was highest on cycle days when luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone are typically peaking. These studies prove through different angles the various ways a woman chooses a potential partner. The end result in any of studies illustrates a women’s attraction to mates with the strongest genes possible.

References

Pawlowski, B., & Jasienska, G. (2008). Women's body morphology and preferences for sexual partners' characteristics. Evolution and Human Behavior, 29(1), 19-25.

Roney, J., & Simmons, Z. (2008). Women's estradiol predicts preference for facial cues of men's testosterone. Hormones and Behavior, 53(1), 14-19.

Lukaszewski, A., & Roney, J. (2009). Estimated hormones predict women's mate preferences for dominant personality traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(3), 191-196.

Smith, F., Jones, B., Welling, L., Little, A., Vukovic, J., Main, J., et al. (2009). Waist-hip ratio predicts women's preferences for masculine male faces, but not perceptions of men's trustworthiness. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(5), 476-480.

Relevant Links:

BBC article on women’s preference for masculine faces

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/376321.stm

Women Prefer bad boy for dating but good guy for long-term relationships

http://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/news/20031024/women-like-cads-sex-dads-mating

Women’s preference for masculine face with some female traits

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9OIvZZd4ogs

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Avoiding Incestuous Matings

Children resulting from incestuous relationships suffer an inbreeding depression, take up valuable reproductive time, and are often genetically inferior offspring (Sureender, Prabakan, and Khan, 1998). Participants in incestuous relationships experience reduced fitness as the offspring of such unions suffer reduced viability typically because they are not as physically or psychologically healthy.

[[Image:|Females-Incestual%20Avoidance.jpg]]

Other studies have found that there is, perhaps, an instinctive psychological aversion to incest (Shepher, 1983). For example, there is a cross-cultural childish aversion in males to kissing their sisters. Even in a community, with a family familiarity such as a kibbutz, sexual attraction between those raised together as children was rare. Thornhill (1997) also found that in America step-siblings had little sexual interest in one another. Incest between siblings has been found to be more likely to occur when they had been separated for some time (Bevc and Silverman, 1998). Russell (1986) found that most incest occurs between generations. Often what we call incest occurs between step-related young females, desired by older males. No instinctive mechanism has evolved since there is no genetic weakening from such unions (Brown, 1991). If so, it may be that father-daughter incest is highest where the male is unsure of his paternity or believes that the daughter is not his own (Welham, 1990).

It is necessary for humans to reject incest in order to procreate diverse progeny which will increase the survival chances of one’s offspring. Research on incest has shown how evolution plays a major role in incest avoidance. Evolution has created hereditary mechanisms that allow humans to detect kinship and avoid incestuous relationships. Wheelwright, Freeman-Gallant and Mauk’s (2006) study on asymmetrical incest avoidance in genetic mates exemplifies how species, such as humans and birds, avoid incest because this results in inbreeding depression. Incest increases the chances of ill recessive alleles expressing themselves in offspring, creating reduced reproductive success. The results of this study found that daughter and father birds never mated with each other even if they were in close proximity and females rarely paired socially with sons and brothers. The rare occasions of incestuous mating occurred between young one-year old males mating for the first time and older females. This study is a prime example of species avoiding incestuous encounters.

Lieberman, Tooby, and Cosmides (2007) have found that there are different ways siblings detect kinship. Evolution has created a system for detecting genetic relatedness between humans by: 1. regulating altruism, and 2. regulating mate choice. Sibling altruism and opposition to incest was measured by co-residence with a given sibling of the opposite sex as well as maternal perinatal association (MPA), or an enforced association between child, mother, and siblings in early care. Maternal perinatal association is the care a mother provides a child at birth; if another child witnesses a mother caring after an infant, it is highly probable that this infant is a sibling. The results indicated that when MPA is absent, as would be the case when younger siblings are detecting older siblings, the duration of co-residence predicts sexual aversion and altruism towards the older sibling. When older siblings are detecting younger siblings, MPA plays a role in kin detection. Co-residence and MPA predict the beliefs siblings hold about incestuous acts between siblings. The findings supported their hypothesis that human’s hold a system that allows for kin detection and helps avoid incest between siblings.

In a prior study by Lieberman, Tooby, and Cosmides (2003), it was also found that evolution has played a major role in incest avoidance in humans. Their theory stemmed from 19th century anthropologist Edward Westermark’s idea that there are innate mechanisms in humans that allow for incest avoidance; for example, when children are reared in close proximity a sexual aversion evolves. Furthermore, Lieberman, Tooby, and Cosmides believed that there exist psychological mechanisms in humans that are dedicated to, 1. Identifying individuals who have a high probability of being a close genetic relative, and 2. Using that information to avoid fertile sexual relations with them because such sexual relations would be harmful. The incest avoidance mechanisms in humans were due to two recurring evolutionary conditions. First, close genetic relatives met each other during fertile years at amply high rates and second, those individuals who did mate with close genetic relatives suffered reduced reproductive success compared to those who did not have sexual relations with close relatives. The prediction stated that, due to selection pressures, information processing adaptations evolved that have humans avoiding sexual contact with those close in kinship. Lieberman et al. (2003) predicted that incest avoidance would be higher in women, stronger during periods of high fertility in women, and greater after puberty, as well as when cues for kinship are more reliable. To measure sexual aversion between opposite sex siblings and parents, subjects were shown images of incestuous sexual acts. The results showed that the longer siblings resided with each other during childhood the more disgust was expressed when viewing the sexual images with a sibling. This study on incest has shown that siblings who grow up together will avert sexual encounters with siblings.

A study conducted by Weisfield et al (2003) on possible olfaction-based mechanisms in human incest avoidance showed that olfaction plays a major role in close relative recognition. Three studies were devised in order to detect how strong olfaction played a role in kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance between siblings and parents. Participants were asked to wear a white t-shirt for 2 consecutive nights. Then they were blindfolded and instructed to smell six t-shirts, one from a stranger, and the others from family members. The results obtained for the first study indicated that kin were rarely confused with non-kin when stimuli were presented. Kin were able to detect mother with 91% accuracy, familiar unrelated person (73%) and brother, sister and father all 59% of the time. The second study measured a mother’s ability to identify her children and stepchildren as well as the ability of children to identify their full, half-, and stepsiblings. The white shirts were again used in this study. The results indicated that mothers were able to identify the shirt worn by her biological children in 27 out of the 30 cases. However, mothers were not able to correctly identify the shirts worn by their stepchildren - they only got two out of seven trials correct. Furthermore, children were able to identify their blood siblings by olfactory cues at a significant rate but were unable to detect the odor of their half siblings. The third study inspected odor detection and partiality between nuclear family members; the white shirts were once again used for this study. The results indicated that both mothers and fathers could tell their children apart from the control child. Children ages six to eight were not able to recognize their mother’s odor; however, older children ages nine to 15 were able to detect their mother’s odor. Neither group of younger and older children preferred the mother’s odor to that of the control, showing that this may be a reason why children and mothers avoid committing incest. Daughters were able to recognize their father’s odor but preferred the control odor over their father’s. Furthermore, children were able to significantly detect the odor of the opposite-sex sibling and preferred the control group odor instead. These three studies suggest that kin recognition may be mediated by stimulus intensity, gender, phenotypic matching, and association. Odors play an important role in incest avoidance. Odor cues, MPA, and co-residence all are mechanisms evolution has created for kin detection and incest avoidance.

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Topic: Avoiding Incestuous Matings Contributor: Isaiah Magpali-Isaac Class: PSYC 310, Fall 2009

Men and women use many different tools to avoid incestuous mating. Humans and other species use various mechanisms for detecting kin, which according to the evolutionary perspective have evolved over time. Research suggests that incest taboos help reinforce mating strategies. Additional research suggests there are times when avoiding incest can be detrimental to survival. Research on detecting kin and kin recognition seems to give some insight on incest avoidance.

J. H. Park et. al. (2008) suggests that opposite-sex siblings are more likely to partake in incestuous activity if they have been raised apart from each other than if they are raised in close proximity. Siblings who have been raised together tend to stay away from incestuous activity, and tend hold views of the moral wrongness of incest (J. H. Park et. al., 2008). Humans and other animals use spatial cues to navigate the world that they live in. 
J. H. Park et. al. (2008) suggests spatial cues can be used to detect kin and often this adaptation of detecting kin using spatial cues is extended to those in close proximity. According to the Westermarck Effect, those who are raised in close proximity to you, whether kin or unrelated, are seen as less appealing sexual partners (J. H. Park et al., 2008). This research seems to suggest that their evolutionary adaptations that use spatial cues to help avoid kin detection. The negative consequences of this adaptation are clear; some viable non-kin will not be selected as sexual partners. Other research shares a different perspective on the avoidance of incest. 


R. S. Immerman and W. C. Mackey (1997) suggests that taboos are formed in order to encourage stronger mating strategies. They primarily examine incest between relatives of different generations, and suggest that if a relative molests a child, their matting templates are severely misguided, resulting in the development of unhealthy matting strategies. To discourage poor mating strategies or underdeveloped ones R. S. Immerman and W. C. Mackey (1997) suggest societies create taboos of such mating strategies so that they do not continue. In the creation of taboos of poor mating strategies, those strategies that are more viable will be able to be better developed by younger generations. 
Although avoiding incestuous mating appears to be a good evolutionary adaptation to increase ones genetic strength, Kokko and Ots (2006) suggests that there are times in which inbreeding and incest should not be avoided.

H. Kokko and I. Ots (2006) suggest that when “species that are capable of breeding many times in their lifetime, but whose reproductive success is limited by low mate encounter rates, should show the highest inbreeding tolerance." In other words when a species can reproduce many time in their life times and there are no viable mates then inbreeding is more likely to happen. Kokko and Ots (2006) note that their findings are very situation dependent on low mate encounter rates and animal inbreeding of any species does not occur regularly. There research is primarily theoretical and may or may not be a observed in reality.

References: 
 Immerman, R. S. & Mackey, W. C. (1997). An additional facet of the incest taboo: a protection of mating strategy template. The Journal for Genetic Psychology, 158(2), 151-164. (http://0-web.ebscohost.com.linus.lmu.edu/ehost/pdf?vid=6&hid=13&sid=4e569c56-2686-47eb-8bca-a68b433d577b%40sessionmgr11)

Kokko, H. & Ots, I. (2006). When not to avoid inbreeding. Evolution, 60(3), 467–475. (http://www.helsinki.fi/~hmkokko/Publ/Inbreeding.pdf)

Park, J. H., Schaller, M., & Van Vugt, M. (2008). Psychology of human kin recognition: Heuristic cues, erroneous inferences, and their implications. Review of General Psychology, 12(3), 215–23. (http://0-web.ebscohost.com.linus.lmu.edu/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=13&sid=4e569c56-2686-47eb-8bca-a68b433d577b%40sessionmgr11)

Photo:


Image: Siblings avoiding incest.

Inbreeding Versus Outbreeding?

There are increasingly more studies that point towards a different view on inbreeding behaviors. Some studies show that excessive outbreeding can be just as detrimental as inbreeding (Bateson, 1983; Shields, 1982). If so, what are the possible benefits of inbreeding behavior? What affects promotion of inbreeding or inbreeding avoidance behaviors in different animals?

Craig and Jamieson (1988) looked into the dispersal patterns, inbreeding, and inbreeding avoidance behaviors of pukeko birds (Porphyrio p. melanotus) and noticed that a balance had been established between inbreeding and outbreeding behaviors. These types of birds are known to be very sedentary and are communal breeders. Any kind of dispersal that they exhibited was rare and only to neighboring territories. Dispersal has been viewed as an inbreeding avoidance behavior in which the animal will leave it’s grouping to seek those with less genetic similarities to themselves. Dispersal should not be viewed as a behavior exclusive to inbreeding avoidance.  There are other possible reasons such as parental dominance, changes in resources, and greater reproductive opportunity. If there is a dominant male, the younger males may be forced to move to other territories. If there is a drought in their territory or a neighboring territory has far better resources then males may disperse to these territories. If there are a larger number of breeding females in a particular territory then males would be motivated to move in order to have a greater chance at reproductive success. The most interesting result in the study was that of the few that did engage in dispersal, all were male and all had spent at least one breeding cycle copulating with relatives in their own territories. The fact that the large majority remained in the same territory or moved to adjacent territories would convey that in any particular area the relatedness of the birds was high.

It has even been shown that amongst female Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis) that choose to copulate with males in neighboring territories they will pick the male most closely related to themselves (Randall et al, 2007). In many situations the preferred mate is the distant relative as opposed to a mate from a distant population (Bateson, 1982). Maybe there is some truth to the old saying “Kissing cousins.” We know that animals do engage in incestuous mating and inbreeding behaviors, so there must be an advantage of some kind.

It is possible that the only reason for any inbreeding behaviors is out of necessity or lack of options. If the population was drastically reduced and the amount of available mates was low then the possible genetic problems that can occur from inbreeding would be a better alternative than failing to reproduce. The number of offspring and their likelihood of survival can be a possible factor. The pukeko bird lays many eggs and while almost all eggs survive until they hatch, the young have a very low survival rate. With so many that do not survive, a possible strategy may be to mate as quickly as possible without discrimination. In other species of birds that have a fixed number of eggs and have greater investment in their young, they do not engage in as much inbreeding behavior. This would be a interesting point to make for why humans are so protective against inbreeding; no other animal has nearly the same amount of investment in their young as well as a smaller amount of young born.

In every act of incestuous copulation it is important to note that inclusive fitness may play a role. Inclusive fitness can be defined as the fitness of an individual organism as measured in terms of the survival and reproductive success of its kin. Inbreeding behaviors affect inclusive fitness by increasing the passing on of the genetic material of you and your kin. If a female has a choice between her brother and another male, by copulating with her brother she increases inclusive fitness by increasing the proportion of her genes that will be passed on to an offspring.

Another possibility, although not well looked into, is a measurement of just how detrimental inbreeding is, and if it is possible to have adaptations to allow more inbreeding behaviors while removing more of the possible negative outcomes. In another species of bird, the blue wrens (Malurus splendens), it has been shown that not only do they exhibit high amounts of incestuous behaviors, but also any apparent negative effect on offspring is not visible or is nonexistent (Rowley et al., 1986). A pitfall of these studies, however, is they do not look deeply enough into various animal groups and see what it is about their differences that promote or avoid inbreeding behavior.

A very recent study by Kokko and Ots (2006) attempts to look at many animal behaviors and isolate which has the greater affect on a species' willingness to participate in inbreeding or outbreeding behaviors. This study not only looks at different mating and child investment adaptations, but also how having simultaneous and sequential choice situations affect each group and the effects of time between each mating. The simultaneous condition is when both an incestuous mate and a non-incestuous mate are both available for the subject to choose for copulation. In the sequential condition the subject is placed with only their kin and must choose between participating in incestuous behavior or waiting for another potential mate to appear. On the inbreeding tolerance scale having the sequential choice caused higher levels of inbreeding tolerance and the simultaneous choice held a standard tolerance level. The affect of each condition was further defined and exaggerated by the amount of rest time given before a new mate was introduced. As the time increases and when they have sequential choice then inbreeding tolerance is further increased. As time increases and they have simultaneous choice then inbreeding tolerance almost disappears completely. Child investment and the amount of available mates were also measured. The three conditions were high breeding costs for the choosy sex, quick and many low cost copulations over the lifetime of both sexes, and when cost is equal because parental care and duties are mostly equal and shared between both sexes. When the breeding cost was high and the number of mates increased, a relatively normal level of inbreeding tolerance was held for both sequential and simultaneous. When breeding cost was low, copulation was quick and numerous inbreeding tolerance was very high for the sequential choice and normal for the simultaneous choice. When parental care and duties were shared relatively equally between both sexes is when tolerance for inbreeding behaviors was at it’s lowest.

From the conclusions above it is easier to see why humans have the least amount of acceptance for incestuous behaviors. Humans have a very large investment in their young and can not afford to take any chances with genetic abnormalities. Humans do not reproduce very often and can not waste any chances to reproduce.

Odor Detection, Mate Selction and the Pill

It is widely known that pheromones are key in non-human mammalian mate selection, but less in known about the extent to which pheromones are involved in human mate selection. Apocrine sweat glands, located wherever there is hair on the body, secrete lipids, proteins and pheromones; they are located in especially dense concentrations on hands, cheeks, scalp, and breast areolas. The fact that these glands are only functional after puberty, when individuals are first able to sexually reproduce, suggests that they may be involved in mate attraction, selection and eventual copulation.

Women are sensitive to chemical compounds similar in structure to the male sex hormone testosterone (Kaplan, 1992). An example of such a compound is musk, which is commonly added to perfume and cologne. Furthermore, the strength of women’s sensitivity to substances like musk varies with the menstrual cycle. Women are at their peak in sensitivity to such substances while they are ovulating, or at their most fertile.

Source: http://ndn.newsweek.com/media/96/

The fact that female sensitivity to musky odorants and other substances similar to testosterone peaks during the most fertile period of the menstrual cycle (and that men secrete these chemicals in abundance) strongly suggests that odor detection is linked to sexual attraction (Kaplan, 1992). Women are not necessarily aware of the substances they are detecting, but detect them nonetheless.

Any person’s individual scent is a product of their unique physiology. Diseases in individuals are sometimes perceptible through smell—a sickly person will smell different from a healthy person (Furlow, 1996). An individual’s unique combination of immune system defenses helps create a unique body odor. As it turns out, the immune system plays a clear role in human attraction and mate selection.

The MHC and the Immune System

When it comes to recognizing a foreign presence, the human body has an acute alien detection system. The body’s cells are coated with proteins that the immune system recognizes as either “self” or some kind of dangerous invader. Products of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are important in this system of recognition. They bind to native or invasive peptides present in one’s immune system and present these peptides to T-lymphocytes, commonly known as T-cells. Activated T-cells then work to get rid of infected or foreign cells present in the immune system.

The MHC is integral to immune system functioning, but its specific properties are genetically determined and vary from person to person. A developing fetus has received her unique MHC from her parents, but MHC genes are not like genes for eye color or earlobe attachment, which are either dominant or recessive. MHC genes are co-dominant, meaning if a mother is resistant to disease A and the father is resistant to disease B, the baby will inherit resistance to both diseases. It follows that babies with a variety of immunities will be more likely to survive than babies with a limited number of immunities. Here is where the MHC plays an important role in mate selection.

The MHC and Mate Selection Wedekind, Seebeck, Bettens, and Paepke (1995) found that the extent to which women rate a man’s body odor as pleasant or sexy depends on how similar their MHC profile (and by extension, their immune systems) are. The less similar the MHC profile, the more sexy the odor of the man. From an evolutionary perspective, this makes sense; the gametes from two people with dissimilar immune systems would combine to form a fetus with a good battery of defenses against a variety of diseases. That fetus would be more likely to survive and reproduce than a fetus from two parents who had even slightly less dissimilar (or more similar) immune systems.

The Pill

Wedekind et al. (1995) also found that women who were taking contraceptive pills rated the odors of men with a more similar MHC as more pleasant and sexy than women not on the pill. Contraceptive pills administer steroids that physiologically simulate pregnancy. Specifically the pill (or the Combined Oral Contraceptive Pill) prevents ovulation as its main mechanism of pregnancy prevention. The pill effectively reverses female preference for a dissimilar MHC, instead causing women on the pill to prefer the odor of men with a similar immune system.

This could potentially pose a problem for babies of two parents who partnered up while the woman was on the pill. Two similar immune systems do not provide a fetus with a great variety of defenses. A woman not on the pill may therefore be more apt to chose a mate with whom she will have the healthier baby.

One could easily extrapolate from these findings the idea that the current high divorce rate in the United States could be linked to increased use of the pill since its introduction in 1960 (Tyrer, 1999). This is a bit fallacious, as human attraction and mate selection is very complicated. In no way does mate selection rest solely on women’s ability to detect a dissimilar MHC in a potential mate. A whole series of social, cultural and emotional factors are integral to mate selection, as well as biological. The survival of babies with varied immune system defenses explains why women are able to detect the MHC profile of men, not why any one woman is attracted to any one man.

Topic: Effects of Birth Control on Women’s Health Contributor: Stefanie Bond Class: Psych 310, Fall 2008      Going against human nature to reproduce, humans have created many birth control methods so that sex can be a means of pleasure without the end result of pregnancy. There are many methods of birth control, and as a result, there are many problems and possibly dangerous side-effects. Both men and women have barrier and surgical methods to use in pregnancy prevention that can be safe or harmful for them. In preventing pregnancy, sexually active women using hormonal contraceptives put their bodies through an unnatural stop, and they can be greatly affected both physically and mentally.       Hormonal birth control methods include either combination hormonal methods of both estrogen and progestin (synthetic progesterone), and come in forms of pills taken daily, skin patches changed weekly, and rings changed monthly. Progestin-only hormonal methods include pills, injections (Depo-Provera given every 3 months), and implants such as Implanon (a matchstick size implant inserted in the upper arm) or an intrauterine device (IUD) which is placed in the uterus and provides birth control for 5-10 years. (WebMD 2008)      Oral contraception, or “the Pill,” is unreservedly prescribed and even given out for free at clinics such as Planned Parenthood. “Women who take the Pill complain of mood swings and nausea and are at higher risk of blood clots and high blood pressure. The Pill contains small doses of the hormones estrogen and progesterone which block ovulation but cause side-effects.” (Laurance 2007) You can get weight gain with estrogen and some pills have an effect on libido and mood and every woman has a different response. The oral Pill is nearly 60 years old and there has been no real advance in methods since then. (Laurence 2007)      Suppressing the menstrual cycle is considered dangerous by some, and like any drug, there are side effects. Doctors recommend cervical screenings for cancer detection. The human papillomavirus (HPV) is the leading cause of cervical cancer. In 2002, a study was done on the effect of oral contraceptives on risk of cervical cancer in women with human HPV DNA. The study showed long-term use of oral contraceptives could be a cofactor that increases risk by up to four-fold. Women who used “the Pill” for 5-9 years double their odds of cervical cancer, while users of 10 or more years increase their risk by up to four-fold. (Moreno 2002)       In 2001, a study was done on women 18+ years in committed sexually active relationships for the purpose of “exploring predictors of discontinuation of oral contraceptives (OC) including pre-OC use characteristics and adverse physical, emotional, and sexual effects of OCs.” (Sanders 2001) The women were assessed before starting and reassessed at 3, 6, and 12 months, or shortly after discontinuation. The study concluded that the most important factors in discontinuation of OCs were unfavorable effects on mood and sexuality. According to the study, medical literature dating back to the year 1960 “acknowledges that negative mood changes are reported by women taking the Pill, and may be a reason for discontinuation.” Today, medical literature includes “mental depression” in the category of adverse reactions which are “believed to be drug-related,” but the possible mechanism underlying such an effect, is strikingly absent. One early exception was medical interest in the possibility that OCs altered tryptophan metabolism, and therefore caused “mental depression.” There is even less attention researched and given to doctors and patients on sexual side effects of the Pill. The 2001 study showed large numbers of women discontinuing the pill after lower frequency in intercourse, thinking about sex, and psychosocial arousability. Apparently, the Pill prevents pregnancy but doesn’t promote sex.      Besides hormonal methods, there are internal and external methods as well. Humans can go to extreme measures to prevent unwanted reproduction, such as permanent birth control, or sterilization, which exists for males in vasectomies and females in hysterectomies, tube tying and cutting. (WebMD) Some barrier methods have shown to be harmful for women’s bodies. The “barrier methods,” such as spermicidal foam, sponges, and diaphragms alter the vaginal ecosystem and can possibly cause infectious diseases. (Gupta 2000) Women who develop clinical syndromes associated with altered vaginal flora may choose to avoid these methods of birth control in favor of OCs, which appear to have minimal effects on the “vaginal microbial ecology.” (Gupta 2000) “Clarification of additional modifiable factors that disturb vaginal homeostasis is important for furthering our understanding of the pathogenesis of altered vaginal ecology and for providing additional behavioral choices for women.” (Gupta 2000)      There is a new form of birth control pill being studied on the research scene. “Almost 60 years after the development of the Pill, scientists have announced they are working on the first alternative oral contraceptive, and they hope it will be free of side-effects.” (Laurance 2007) The new contraceptive, planning to be ready for human trials by 2017, would give “all the benefits [of the Pill] without the nausea, the headaches, the mood alterations, and the raised risk of thrombosis, stroke and heart attacks.” It doesn’t have the side-effects because it does not depend on manipulating hormones. Unlike the Pill, it would allow normal ovulation to happen but works by preventing the sperm from penetrating into the egg. It does this by targeting a gene called ZP3. Researchers say, “Blocking the gene prevents production of a protein that forms part of the coating of the egg which enables sperm to bind to the outer layer.” Apparently the advantage of ZP3 is that it doesn't occur anywhere else in the body, so the effect is highly targeted. (Laurance 2007)      Birth control is a product of modern humanity. Contraceptives have evolved from barrier methods to hormonal, surgical, and newly studied genetic. They can have adverse effects on women’s health. The interest is not in discredit the Pill or any method of contraception, as the Pill is a profoundly important contraceptive method, but to illuminate what women are doing to their moods, sexuality and bodies as they take the preventative measures provided. <br> ___________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ <br> References:<br>Gupta, K. (2000) Effects of Contraceptive Method on the Vaginal Microbial Flora: A Prospective Evaluation. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 181:595–601, January 27, 2009, from www. Journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/31267 Laurance, J. (2007) New non-hormonal contraceptive avoids side effects of the Pill. The London. January 27, 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_2001017/<br>ai_n21050096?tag=content;col1 Moreno, V. (2002) Effect of oral contraceptives on risk of cervical cancer in women with human papillomavirus infection:the IARC mutli-centric case-control study. The Lancet, V359 I9312 p1085-1092, January 27, 2009, from http://www.sciencedirect.com Sanders, S. (2001) A prospective study of the effects of oral contraceptives on sexuality and well-being and their relationship to discontinuation. Contraception, V62 I1 p51-58, January 28, 2009, from http://www.sciencedirect.com WebMD (2008, May 22) Birth Control-Birth Control Methods. January 27, 2009, from http://www.webmd.com/sex/birth-control/birth-control-birth-control-methods Relevant Website Links: Being born female is dangerous for your health:<br>http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&amp;id=2003-03645-007 Dangers of suppressing menstruation:<br>http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6T1B-4FVCHYK-1JW&amp;_user=945462&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_fmt=&amp;_orig=search&amp;_sort=d&amp;view=c&amp;_acct=C000048964&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=945462&amp;md5=bbb842022f55d6de1367ecea2c0c8f56<br>

Looking for Signs of Good Health

Mating with an unhealthy male poses at least five risks. First, unhealthy mates have a higher chance of dying prematurely or becoming incapacitated, which would prevent them from supplying resources such as food, and protection for women and children. Second, an unhealthy male could pass on diseases or viruses to their partner, impairing the partner’s strengths (and ability to care for the offspring), and also affecting their partner’s reproductive ability and survival. Third, the offspring could be infected by the unhealthy parent, affecting chances of reproductive health and survival. Fourth, in terms of heritable traits, an unhealthy mate risks passing on unhealthy characteristics to the offspring. Fifth, not only can unhealthy mates fail to provide their share of resources, but the amount of care that they might require could further drain the resources of the healthy partner. For all these reasons, it is clear why one would want to select a healthy mate.

http://www.fileden.com/files/2008/4/28/1888420/Chapter%2010/Females-Assesing%20Male%20Health.jpg 

An international study conducted by Buss, et al. (1990) revealed that participants across all the cultures gave the quality of good health a very high ranking. With a scale of 0 (irrelevant) to +3 (indispensable), the women rated it at +2.28, and the men ranked it slightly higher at +2.31.

Now that we know the importance of health in choosing a mate, how do we determine who possesses these healthy genes and traits?

In humans, one possible visual cue of health is body and facial symmetry. The idea is that those more symmetrical are healthier; therefore, preferences have evolved for those exhibiting more symmetry. In a study done by Shackelford and Larsen (1997), results showed that individuals with symmetrical faces received higher scores on tests of physiological, psychological, and emotional health. According to Buss, et al. (1990), there is a positive correlation between facial symmetry and our ideas of what is considered attractive in both sexes. In fact, men with symmetrical faces are judged to be more sexually attractive to women, have more sexual partners during their lifetimes, have more extra-pair copulations, and begin sexual intercourse earlier in life.

[[Image:|Males-James%20Bond%20Facial%20Symmetry%201.jpg]]  [[Image:|Males-James%20Bond%20Facial%20Symmetry%202.jpg]] 

Good Looks as a Sign of Good Genes

Contributor: Tatianna Smith
Topic: Female Facial Preferences in Long Term vs. Short Term Mating Opportunities
Class: Psych 310/452 The female human has adaptively become the discriminating sex; she must be choosy and highly selective of her mate, her reproductive success relies upon her sheer ability to assess a man. Discriminatory behavior by females was and is essential to a female’s reproductive success due to the high amount of parental investment she puts into her offspring. Buss (2008) suggests human females are K-strategists, they have few offspring and invest a great deal of parental investment into their offspring. Also the human woman’s reproductive value is severely limited to that of a human man, her offspring’s survival and success depends greatly upon the choice of her mate. In the evolutionary environment women began to assess mate qualities that would increase the survival of their future offspring. Women that could quantify a mates success through the assessment of a man’s resources (what he has to offer her offspring) would have a reproductive advantage over those who could not. Buss explains “…evolution has favored women who prefer men possessing those attributes that confer benefits and who dislike men possessing those attributes that impose costs” (Buss, 2008). Evolution has given women the psychological mechanisms to evaluate attributes a male has to offer. One of which is facial preference.
Buss (2008) explains that specific facial preferences displayed by women have evolved allowing a woman to unconsciously decode the amount and type of resources a male holds. Women’s facial preferences have adapted to assess the value of genes and parental investment a particular male can and will allocate. The two major resources males offer to potential offspring is parental investment and genes. Women have become very good at assessing which males will allocate which resources, through adapted facial preferences. Females have adapted specific facial preferences representative to the specific mating opportunity that will be pursued. Mating opportunity is reflected by short-term relationships and long-term relationships. Females mostly display facial preference for males that have both high levels of symmetry and masculinity during a short term mating opportunity. They value masculinity and symmetry less during a long-term mating opportunity, and actually prefer more feminine male faces during this period.
Both symmetry and masculinity are displays of “good genes.” Symmetry is assessed because it is a sign of good health. According to Buss “…various environmental events and genetic stressors produced deviations from bilateral symmetry, creating lopsided faces and bodies” (Buss, 2008). Symmetry shows an individuals ability to with stand environmental and genetic stressors which is a cue of good health. Masculine facial features are also a sign of good health. Testosterone causes a face to have masculine features. The more masculine a face appears the more testosterone a person is developing. Testosterone compromises the immune system so only males that are in good health are able to produce high levels of testosterone.
Fink and Penton-Voak (2002) suggest that in short-term mating opportunities the most a male will provide is his viable sperm which provides “good genes.” During a short-term relationship this is considered most important because a male with “good genes” is less likely to provide parental investment to his offspring. During long-term relationships women hold fewer preferences for masculinity and symmetry in facial preference because the male is more likely to provide resources such as financial support and parental care for potential offspring. Masculine traits signal immunity and “good” genes but an unwillingness to invest in potential offspring while more feminine male faces signal willingness for parental investment but less health.
In 2006, Daniel J. Kruger assessed the relationship between women’s facial preferences for men in short-term versus long-term relationships. He studied the mating trade-off hypothesis in his study. According to Kruger “The mating trade-off hypothesis predicts that women’s partner preferences should be related to the length of relationship expectations for genetic and parental investments” (Kruger 2006). Facial masculinity was hypothesized to play a role in both a females mate choice and a males personality and reproductive strategy in the three studies that were conducted. Study one consisted of 448 participants, 316 which were female (study fulfilled course requirement). Their mean age was 20.6 years old. They were shown six individual male faces 50% of them feminized and 50% of them masculinized. Participants were asked to rate these faces in regards to the following questions: How attractive do you think this person is? How masculine do you thing this person is? How feminine do you think this person is? Men and women accounted personality, behavior and mating strategies consistent with the mating trade off- hypothesis. Feminized faces reflected the likelihood of long-term relationships and masculinized faces represented short-term relationships. Study two consisted of 246 participants, 131 were female and 115 were male from a large Midwestern American university (online study to fulfill course requirement). The mean age was 19.3 years old. The participants were shown 50% feminized faces and 50% masculinized faces. They were asked to choose which person in the composite was more likely to for example, sleep with the most women in his entire lifetime. They were asked questions that reflected risky and competitive behaviors, mating effort, and paternal investment. Women in this study were then asked which person they would prefer to marry, have sexual relations with, have an extra-pair partnership, have as a sperm donor, and which person would their parents prefer them to date. Men where asked which male would they prefer to accompany their girlfriend on a weekend trip to another city. All participants were asked which composite they would rather have their hypothetical 25-year old daughter be engaged with. Participants accurately judged personality, behavior and mating strategies in accordance with the mating trade-off hypothesis. Participants associated more risky mating effort and behavior with more masculinized faces. They also perceived these faces as displacing less parental investment. These studies help to display women’s accurate judgments for facial preference in relation to their mating strategy. It furthers the assessment that women perceive men that have more masculine facial features to be short-term ventures to benefit offspring with “good genes.” It also displays how women prefer less masculine faces for potential long-term mates that will invest more parental effort into their offspring.
In a recent study performed to assess women’s preference for symmetry in male faces across their menstrual cycle (Little, Jones, Burt & Perret, 2007) findings supported that when women are most fertile their preferences for symmetrical faces increase. Study one consisted of 31 heterosexual women with a mean age of 19.5 years old. They all reported regular menstrual cycles and non-use of oral contraceptives. They had been tested upon weekly intervals up to six occasions. Women were asked to give urine samples after each screening. Participants were shown a series of male and female faces. They were presented with 12 pairs of faces. The faces in each pair were identical except in symmetry and were presented side by side. The participants were instructed to choose the face they felt most attractive. Twenty-four filler faces were also presented to the participants that differed in other dimensions than symmetry, for example age. After testing participants were asked to report upon their menstrual cycle such as length, number of days and the date of their last menstruation. It had been hypothesized that women would prefer more symmetrical faces during their suspected late follicular phase of their menstrual cycle, when they would be most fertile. Their findings were significant women found the highly symmetrical men and women faces to be more attractive during the most fertile time of menstruation. This suggests that women do indeed prefer symmetry when faced with a short-term relationship, or when pregnancy is possible. Possibility of pregnancy creates a biological trigger for preference to men that potentially will offer “good genes” to offspring. During a woman’s fertile peak her short-term objectives are displayed, she prefers the best possible genes for the development of her offspring not necessarily the best parental investment.
Little et al. (2007) sought to further asses women’s preference for symmetrical faces during their peak fertility in a study two as well. They sought to link women’s preference for symmetry to short-term mating strategies, which would maximize her obtainment of “good” genes. Study two predicted that women would show preferences for symmetrical faces during peak fertility. They also predicted women would prefer more symmetrical faces in judging potential short-term relationship than long-term relationships when rating faces. Little et al (2007) continued to predict that women would have stronger preference for symmetry at peak fertility if they had a partner more than if they did not have a partner. This study consisted of 210 volunteer heterosexual female participants that reported no use of hormonal contraceptives. Their mean age was 25, and 98 were in relationships and 112 were not; 63 were in their follicular stage or fertile stage. Participants were presented with 15 image pairs that consisted of the same individuals face side by side. The two faces were of the original facial image and the altered, more symmetrical facial image of the person. Participants were asked to choose which face they found more attractive. They judged the 15 images in two sessions once with the intention to rate for potential long-term relationships and another with the intention for a short-term relationship. Then participants completed a questionnaire that consisted of age, sexuality, partnership status, hormonal-contraceptive use and days since last menstruation. A standard 28-day model of the female menstrual cycle was used to divide women into high and low conception groups. Only in the short-term relationship context did significant shifts in preferences for symmetry appear across the menstrual cycle. They also found that women that were in relationships showed a higher preference for symmetry during peak fertility than women who were not in relationships; but this prediction was not conventionally significant. A woman’s preference for men that have more symmetrical faces during a short-term relationship shows a women’s ability to assess male investment. It shows she is trying to maximize her opportunities for gene quality, because she knows parental investment will probably lack in a short-term venture. Women are maximizing the appropriate type of resources that may be acquired from a mate. A woman preferring highly symmetrical male faces more when they have a mate displays the potential for an extra-pair partner. This suggests a woman is able to allocate two types of resources from two different males. The more symmetrical male, her short-term partner will provide “good genes” and the less symmetrical male, her long-term partner will provide parental investment. Figure 1. Asymmetric original (left) and symmetrical (right) male faces used in Study 2
Figure 3. Symmetry preferences (mean) according to (A) term (short- and long-term) and fertility (high and low) and (B) partnership status (no partner and partner) and fertility (high and low).
Jones et al. (2005) conducted a study that explored women’s preferences for femininity in faces when fertility is low. Women show sexual dimorphism in preference towards faces based upon relationship context. When a man is perceived to have potential for a long-term relationship women show more preference toward feminized faces. Elevated levels of progesterone (fertility is low) should reflect women’s preference for feminine male faces. This study was conducted over the internet. Participants consisted of 93 women with a mean age of 25. All participants described having regular menstrual cycles, and reported they were not using hormonal contraceptives. They also reported not being pregnant. All participants were in current relationships that at minimal were three months old. Participants were shown 12 pairs of faces six male and six female. The pairs consisted of the same face, but one was masculinized and the other feminized. Filler trials, faces that had not been manipulated were also displayed along with the 12 pairs. Participants were instructed to choose the face that was more attractive. After this participants were asked to report the number of days since the start of their menstrual cycle bleeding and the questions that were stated above. Using Likert Scales ranging 1-5 participants were asked to rate how happy they were in their relationship (1= unhappy to 5= happy) and their level of commitment to their relationship (1=uncommitted to 5= committed). Then they were asked if their relationship had begun between 3-12 months, 13 months-3 years and more than 3 years ago. Participants that indicated their relationship was less than three months old were not included in the study. Progesterone levels were estimated by the participant’s report of their menstrual cycle. Women that displayed potentially higher levels of progesterone showed a preference for feminine faces. Women that had elevated progesterone levels also expressed a higher level commitment to their romantic partner. This displays a woman’s preference for a long-term mate that will provide parental investment. A woman' potential for pregnancy is lower so she is uninterested in a short-term relationship that will provide her offspring with “good genes.” When progesterone levels are high a female is more concerned with attracting and obtaining a mate that will allocate financial and parental investment for future offspring.
Females have adapted mechanisms that allow them assess males resource value through facial preferences. For the pursuit of survival of their potential offspring women evolved to allocate the two major resources males have to offer to potential offspring which is genes and parental investment. They are biologically able to assess and manipulate long-term versus short-term relationships in which they know what resources they will obtain from their mate.
References Buss, D.M. (2008). Women’s long-term mating strategies. In S. Harman et al. (Eds.), Evolutionary psychology: the new science of the mind (pp.106-138). Boston, MA: Pearson. Fink, B., & Penton-Voak, I. (2002). Evolutionary psychology of facial attractiveness. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 154-158. Jones, B.C., Little, A.C., Boothroyd, L., DeBruine, L.M., Feinberg, D.R., Law Smith, M.J., et al. (2005). Commitment to relationships and preferences for femininity and apparent health in faces are strongest on days of the menstrual cycle when progesterone level is high. Hormones and Behavior, 48, 283-290. Kruger, D. J. (2006). Male facial masculinity influences attributions of personality and reproductive strategy. Personal Relationships, 13, 451-463. Little, A. C., Jones, B.C., Burt, M. D., & Perrett, D. I. (2007). Preferences for symmetry in faces change across the menstrual cycle. Biological Psychology, 76, 209-216. Relevant Website:
Video
The Face of Attraction (Sex Health Guru Tip)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cqJfigndX-4
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{| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" width="600" border="1" |- | Topic: Good Looks as a Sign of Good Genes Contributor: Amber Kika Class: PSYC 310, Fall 2008 “How sweet that old chestnut is, equally comforting to the unbeautiful, who know they have so much beyond physical appearance to offer the world, and the beautiful, who, after years of being pursued for their prettiness, really do want to be loved for their inner selves.”  -Unknown       Consider the expressions “Beauty is only skin deep”, and “beauty is in the eye of the beholder.” There has been a lot of research done on this phenomenon, and many researchers suggest that good looks, or facial attractiveness, are a sign of good genes. If this is true, that makes beauty much more than skin deep. Naturally this brings another question to mind; what makes someone good looking? A research study by Gillian Rhodes (2006) used biologically based standards of beauty such as averageness, symmetry, and sexual dimorphism to determine standards of beauty based on culture (p. 201). G. Rhodes argues that face preferences may be adaptations of mate choice because attractiveness suggests health, good genes, and also is a result of the way our brain processes information (p. 216). Average traits reflect good condition and/or inheritable resistance to disease. The study used composites to determine averageness and found that the composites were most attractive when features were aligned and when the same complexion appeared on all the images (p. 204).       G. Rhodes (2006) also found that perfectly symmetric faces were more attractive than asymmetric faces. Perfectly symmetric faces are made by blending normal and mirror-reversed images (p. 206).&nbsp; Sexual dimorphism in faces becomes apparent when male and female faces begin to differ at puberty. In males, “testosterone stimulates the growth of the jaw, cheekbones, brow ridges, center of the face and facial hair, while in females estrogen may also increase lip size”. Because sexual dimorphism increases at puberty, sexually dimorphic traits signal sexual maturity and reproductive potential (p. 208).        Evolutionary Psychologist Satoshi Kanazawa (2008) offers insight as to why men like beautiful women. He bases his theory on Barbie, which he cleverly noted “Barbie: manufactured by Mattel, designed by evolution.” S. Kanazawa says that “part of the reason that men prefer young women, besides their higher reproductive value and fertility is that younger women tend to be healthier on average than older women.” One accurate indicator of health is physical attractiveness, and this is the reason why men like beautiful women. Another good indicator of health is hair. Healthy people, men and women alike, have lustrous, shiny hair, whereas the hair of sickly people loses its shine. Hair length also becomes a factor because long hair takes a long time to grow, so that indicates that the person must have been healthy for a long time in order to grow such long beautiful hair.      According to writer Natalie Angier (1994), biologists have studied species such as zebra finches, scorpion flies, elk and human beings which all assess a potential mate for at least one classic benchmark of beauty: symmetry. The choosier partner in the pair, not always the female, examines a suitor for the most possible balance between the left and right halves of the body. In searching for symmetry, a female gains essential clues to the state of the male's health, the strength of his immune system, and the ability of his genes to have survived in the environment he was grew up in. One hypothesis that researchers came up with is that “a symmetrical body demonstrates that the male's central operating systems were all in peak form during important phases of his growth. A well-proportioned body may indicate that the male possesses an immune system capable of resisting infection by parasites, which are known to cause uneven growth of feathers, wings, fur or bone” (p. 1).       In a study done by Tamas Bereczeki and Norbert Mesko (2004) in Hungary, they researched the effects of hair length, facial attractiveness, and personality as factors that each represents a different aspect of mate value and good genes. Features such as large eyes, high forehead, and small nose convey such desirable qualities as youthful liveliness, open-mindedness, honesty, warmth, and friendliness. Women with a high neonate quality are regarded as the most beautiful, and babyish characters are preferred across cultures (p. 4). Several studies reported that males rated higher and more pronounced cheekbones highly, and full lips on female faces. Males also preferred long hair and a bun to short hair in females, which can be interpreted as a preference for maturity features. Expressive features that facilitate nonverbal expressions may also contribute to the attractiveness of the face. Features such as a large smile, dilated pupils, and raised eyebrows are particularly desirable in females because they convey excitement, arousal and receptivity, and friendliness and warmth (p. 5). A correlation is shown in this study between facial attractiveness, and hair length to indicators of good health and good genes.  Angier, N (1994). Why birds and bees, too, like good looks. The New York Times, Retrieved November 12, 2008, from http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&amp;res=9F04EEDC1738F93BA35751C0A962958260 Bereczkei, T, &amp; Mesko, N (2004). Hair length, facial attractiveness, personality attribution; A multiple fitness model of hairdressing. Evolutionary Psychology. 2-20. Kanazawa, S (2008). Barbie: Manufactured by Mattel, designed by evolution III. Retrieved November 20, 2008, from Psychology Today Blogs Web site: http://blogs.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-scientific-fundamentalist/200809/barbie-manufactured-mattel-designed-evolution-iii Rhodes, G (2006).The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. Annual Review Psychology. 57, 199-226.<br> |}

FEMALE PROBLEM: SELECTING A GOOD SOCIAL PARTNER

POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS:

Looking for Good Behavior

In Buss et al’s (1990) international study discussed above, the most valued traits after love were "a dependable character and emotional stability or maturity." In nearly two-thirds of the cultures in the survey, men and women showed the same desire for dependability in partners. In the remaining approximate third, the women from fifteen out of the sixteen cultures valued dependability in a potential partner more than men did. In terms of emotional stability or maturity, the majority of all the women in the study valued these qualities more than men did. In no cultures did men value these two qualities more than women.

The existence of these stable and mature traits in a potential mate suggests to a woman the likelihood that over time, resources will be provided on a consistent basis. It would benefit women to choose men with these qualities, as men lacking such things as kindness, dependability and maturity can be very detrimental to a relationship and can decrease the well being of her children. Buss (1991) did a study of randomly selected newlyweds in a large county in Michigan, and the results were that "Emotionally unstable men – as defined by themselves, their spouses, and the interviewers – are especially costly to women." These men were found to be self-centered and would monopolize both the time of their wives as well as shared resources. They showed higher rates of jealousy, dependency, and moodiness, and tended to be both verbally and physically abusive. A later study indicated that on average, they also had more affairs, which further depletes the time and resources that they can provide (Buss & Shackelford, 1997

Temporal context also affects women’s preferences in a mate, meaning whether a woman is seeking a long- or short-term relationship. Various studies show that women tend to desire men who display good character traits, such as kindness, maturity, and dependability. When seeking a short-term relationship, as in a casual sex partner, such good character traits are not seen as a necessity.

In one study, undergraduate women were asked to rate their desire towards various characteristics of long-term and short-term mates (Buss and Schmitt, 1993). The range of the rating scale went from –3 to +3. Negative three indicated extremely undesirable feelings towards a particular characteristic. On the other end of the scale, positive three indicated extremely desirable feelings towards a particular characteristic. The following chart displays the ratings women gave towards long-term and short-term characteristics. Schmitt and Buss suggest that these findings show that temporal context matters to women in seeking a mate, and this context shifts according to whether they are seeking a casual sex partner or marriage partner.

==== Characteristic ====	==== Average Long-term Mate Rating ====	==== Average Short-Term Mate Rating ====
Ambitious and career oriented	2.45	1.04
Responsible	2.75	1.75
Understanding	2.93	2.10
Kind	2.88	2.50
Fond of children	2.93	1.21
Devoted to you	2.8	0.90
Creative	1.9	1.29
College grad	2.38	1.05

A study done by Scheib (1997) showed a difference in mate preferences between women, age 18-40, who had never been married compared to women who were married or had been married. Scheib presented photographs accompanied with personality descriptions of men to 160 women. The personality descriptions emphasized good mate characteristics such as kindness, patience, loyalty, understanding, etc. Sixty women had been or were currently married. After participants viewed five of the portraits accompanied with personality descriptions, each woman was asked to choose one. Half of the women were directed to choose the photograph and personality description that they would prefer for a short sexual affair. The other half were directed to choose the photograph and personality description that represented someone they would prefer for a husband. As in the Buss and Schmitt study, Scheib found that women who chose the photograph and personality description of a preferred husband tended to select those photographs and descriptions with more wholesome character traits more than women who were asked to choose the photograph and description for a brief sexual affair.

Look for Males Who are Willing to Commit to a Long-term Relationship

As discussed earlier, there is a vast difference between the male and female desire for sexual variety. Given the enormous investment females make in reproduction, it is in her interest to select a mate who will be there to contribute to her and potential offspring. Females pursuing short-term strategies risked being left with doing the difficult job of raising children alone, and suffered decreased reproductive success. For those females who were fortunate to find mates who were willing to overcome desires for sexual variety and commit to her for an extended period of time, reproductive success was greatly increased.

Source: http://news.cnet.com/i/ne/p/2007/

Female Evolutionary Guidelines to Choosing a Long-Term Mate

Long-term mates, according to many research studies, are identified as potential marriage partners and/or child-rearing partners. Women’s selection process for choosing long-term mates is most likely a psychological adaptation that has been influenced by reccurring problems in the ancestral environment. Such problems include a women’s unmatched level of parental investment, which is significantly higher than that of a man. As noted in a study by Buunk, Dijkstra, Fetchenhauer, and Kenrick (2002, pg. 271): “Males invest more indirect resources such as food and protection, and females more direct resources (their own bodily nutrients).” Ultimately, women, since they must endure the time for full gestation of the child (apprx. 9 months), possibly breast feeding (apprx. 1 year), and provide adequate parenting until a child is able to be independent (apprx. 18 years), must be more selective than men in choosing a mate (Kenrick & Trost, 1997, as reported by Stewart, Stinnett, and Rosenfeld, 2000). Additionally, since not all males are willing and able to invest parentally, it was advantageous for ancestral females to choose a mate who was willing and able to invest resources in her and their offspring on a long-term basis, and to identify a mate with good parenting skills (Stewart, Stinnett, and Rosenfeld, 2000). Although males and females have a more selective set of criteria when choosing a long-term versus a short-term mate, women value earning capacity, ambition and resource acquisition ability as a higher priority more than do men when selecting a long-term partner (Stewart, et al., 2000).

Stewart, Stinnett, and Rosenfeld (2000) conducted a study looking at the difference between men and women in their desired characteristics for short and long-term partners. They had men and women rate the importance of 19 characteristics (e.g., good earning capacity, college graduate, desire for children, physical attractiveness, etc.) for someone who they would date more than once, have a long-term relationship with, or possibly even marry. The results of their study confirmed their hypothesis, suggesting that women do in fact desire a partner with good earning capacity and ambition above many of the other 19 potential characteristics. This inherent need in females to attract a high earning, alpha male type was also confirmed by Buunk, et al. (2002), as they found that women in fact do prefer men who have higher income, education, self confidence, intelligence, dominance, and social position than themselves. With so much at stake for women with regard to parental investment, it is perfectly clear why they would develop psychological strategies to choosing a mate who is willing and capable of providing resources. This choice would ensure survival of the woman, as well as their offspring. Long-term mate choice is a vital decision for women;, especially when men’s minimum possible investment is so minimal compared to that of a woman, and thus, there has been less selective pressure for paternal investment in the rearing of offspring.

A similar study was conducted by Nevid (1984) in which he had subjects rate various physical features, demographic characteristics and personal qualities in terms of their degree of importance in choosing a meaningful partner or long-term mate. Although both sexes placed a greater importance on personal qualities over physical characteristics, when considering a meaningful relationship, Nevid’s findings were consistent with sex role stereotypes and men did in fact place a higher emphasis on physical appearance and females emphasized the personal qualities of potential long term mates, such as honesty, personality, fidelity, and sensitivity. Some of these qualities, such as fidelity, have been interpreted as indicators of a selective woman's preference for an investment with resources. These resources may include, among other things, financial and emotional resources, which would assist a female in raising offspring.

There has been some controversy suggesting that gender differences in romantic attraction do not vary greatly. Psychodynamic and evolutionary theorists argue that there are significant gender differences in romantic attraction; however, social constructionists have tried to argue that similarities in romantic attraction between men and women are greater than their differences (Pines, 1998). The psychodynamic theory suggests that gender differences are the result of upbringing and childhood experiences that boys and girls face in different ways. According to the evolutionary theory, gender differences in romantic attraction result from inherent differences between mammalian males and females in “parental investment” (Trivers, 1972, as reported by Pines, 1998). “Females’ parental investment in their offspring through gestation and nursing is far greater than males. In addition, women can produce far fewer offspring than men can and only during a limited period in their life, while men can produce offspring from puberty until they die. As a result, men and women are attracted to different things in potential mates. Women are looking for men who are willing to commit and who can provide security for them and their offspring, while men are looking for women who can bear many children and thus are attracted to women’s youth, health and beauty” (Pines, 1998, pg. 148). On the contrary, the social constructionists draw conclusions from studies that indicate men and women look for similar traits in a mate, particularly understanding, warmth, sensitivity and humor (Pines, 1998). In a study conducted by Pines (1998), the psychodynamic and evolutionary theories were corroborated, and it was concluded that while men in fact do emphasize physical characteristics, women emphasize intimacy, commitment and security above all other characteristics.

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Topic: How a woman can differentiate between a short-term and long-term mate Contributor: Courtney N. Perley

Class: Psyc 310, Fall 2009         

            It is true that women have a much higher investment in her offspring, so it would make sense that she would want the father of the children to be as involved and invested as she is. However, this isn’t always the case; more often than not it will be the woman who is left to take care of the children all by herself. Because men can invest less in their offspring than women, they are more likely to employ a short-term mating style as compared to women (Schmitt, Shackelford, and Cuss, 2001). It is hard to tell the difference between males who are short-term mates and those who are willing to commit to a long-term relationship. There was a study done that tested the hypothesis that women have an evolved mate value calibration adaptation that functions to raise or lower their standards in a long-term mate according to their own mate value, with the woman’s physical attractiveness being the main component of determining her mate value. The women would base the mate value of the men on their physical attractiveness, good-gene indicators, good investment indicators, good parenting indicators, and good partner indicators. Humans possess a menu of mating strategies that includes long-term mating, short-term opportunistic copulations, extra-pair copulations, and serial mating (Buss, 1994/2003; 2007). Women who are looking for a short-term mate believe that the man’s physical attractiveness, sex appeal, muscularity, and extravagant resource displays are the most important. Women who are pursuing more of a long-term relationship place a greater importance on the man’s resource acquisition potential, such as a promising career and good financial prospects (Buss and Schmitt, 1993).   

               Because it is difficult for a woman to find a long-term mate, she needs to know what traits correlate with short-term mating so that she can avoid those relationships. Some of the traits that positively correlated with short-term mating are extraversion, unrestricted sociosexuality, having engaged in short-term mate poaching attempts, having succumbed to short-term poaching attempts of others, and lacking relationship exclusivity (Schmitt and Shackelford, 2008). Extraversion and sociosexuality are both seen on a national level as being strongly associated with short-term mating. Extraverts are more likely to have a more casual attitude towards having multiple sex partners than introverts. In addition to the traits previously mentioned, low levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness were also found to be related to short-term mating (Schmitt and Shackelford, 2008). Nationwide it was found that low agreeableness and relationship exclusivity had the highest association. The less agreeable the male is, the less he is likely to desire a long-term mate. The trait openness was also found to be associated with short-term mating, yet this trait was not as positively correlated across the nations with short-term mating. Low amounts of openness in a male was highly associated with infidelity, including more of a willingness to succumb to short-term mating poaches and lacking relationship exclusivity (Schmitt and Shackelford, 2008). It is very important for women to observe these traits in the men that they meet and date in order to determine whether they are a short-term mate or a long-term mate.
          

http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/EP06134146.pdf

             If a woman still has trouble differentiating between a long-term and short-term mate, it may be beneficial for the woman to refer to her friends and family to help her find a mate. There was a study done by Jonason, Izzo, and Webster (2007) that examined three theoretical frameworks for understanding why individuals would be more willing to help some individuals find mates instead of others. In the first study, they surveyed college students on their willingness to help different types of individuals find a mate. The college students overall preferred to help people they were close to find a long-term mate rather than helping a stranger. When asked their willingness to help someone find a short-term mate, they preferred to help a stranger their own age find a mate. This is probably due to the fact that by helping those who are genetically close to them, the individuals increase their fitness, both in terms of survival and also in terms of reproduction (Rushton, Russell, and Wells, 1984). Overall, people are more willing to help others find long-term mates rather than helping them find short-term mates, because there is more of a chance that they will benefit from their act of helping if the relationship is a long-term one versus a short term one. In the second study, each participant was randomly assigned to an age-cohort or non-age-cohort condition as well as a STM and LTM willingness to help condition. The results of this study followed the results of the first study; the participants were more willing to help those who were in their age-cohort rather than those who weren’t. Also, overall, individuals were more willing to help others find a long-term mate over a short-term mate (Jonason, Izzo, and Webster 2007). Because it is difficult for them to find a mate on their own, it may be very beneficial to those women who are looking for a serious, long-term relationship to turn to their friends and family for help.

References:

Blesk-Rechek, A., Remiker, M., Swanson, & M., Zeug, N. (2006). Women more than men attend to indicators of good character. Evolutionary Psychology, 4: 248-261.

Buss, D. & Shackelford, T. (2008). Attractive women want it all: good genes, economic investment, parenting proclivities, and emotional commitment. Evolutionary Psychology, 6(1): 134-146.

Jonason, P., Izzo, P., & Webster, G. (2007). Helping others to find long-term and short-term mates: a test of inclusive fitness, reciprocal altruism, and parental investment theories. Evolutionary Psychology, 5(4): 716-732.

Schmitt, D. & Shackelford,T. (2008). Big five traits related to short-term mating: from personality to promiscuity across 46 nations. Evolutionary Psychology, 6(2): 246-282.

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Put Suitors Through ’Tests’ to Assess Their Degree of Commitment

In order to assess male commitment, females may consciously or unconsciously put potential mates through tests. These tests may serve to help the female discern between "cads and dads." Males that perform well in even artificially simulated situations, or "tests", likely make better mates than those males that fail in the same conditions.

Source: http://www.tabularasaessentials.com/store/big_pictures/library/

Make Sure the Male Considers You to be ’Special’

Given males’ desire for a variety of sexual partners, females may have evolved a mental mechanism to attempt to counteract this wanderlust. A female may feel that if she is considered to be special, and therefore more valuable to her mate, his natural tendencies to seek out and mate with other women may be more easily overcome.

Sham Detection

Since male reproductive strategies clash with female reproductive interests, it is imperative that females approach sexual relationships with caution. Females may have evolved devices that help them to detect when a male is dishonest about his intentions for commitment. These devices may have served to assist females in guarding against abandonment.

Topic: Sham Detection: Spotting Clues for Commitment Contributor: Yvette Arañas Class: Psyc 452, Spring 2009 <br> From an evolutionary point of view, human males have the desire to copulate with many different women; having many sex partners opens the door to many new reproductive opportunities. Human females, on the other hand, tend to be more interested in men who will commit and invest in their children. This poses a problem for females: if males have this tendency to have sex with many partners, how will a female know that her child’s father will continue to provide resources for their family? While the female carries a baby in her womb for nine long months, her mate practically could leave her and have even more babies with other females! Because of this problem, women in the EEA needed to be extremely cautious in choosing their mates. They needed to make sure that their mate would provide resources solely to their children. It is possible that over time, women have developed strategies and devices to determine if a potential mate is likely to commit and invest in their future children. With these devices, it is also possible that women developed the ability to detect whether or not the male in question is lying about his promises for commitment and investment. The following four studies I will discuss show some support for these possibilities. First, it is important to know that women—particularly those who need to worry about facing reproductive consequences—are skillful at detecting deception. In one study, a sample of women watched a video of actors giving autobiographical; some told true facts while others told lies (Johnson et al., 2004). The women were asked to evaluate the actors and determine who was lying and who was telling the truth. Interestingly, women who were not in a committed relationship at the time were significantly better at detecting liars than women who were in a committed relationship. Johnson et al. explain that women not in a relationship have more worries about being deceived by males who will not commit; thus they need to keep their defenses high. Moreover, non-committed women also did worse than committed women in detecting actors who were telling the truth. This implies that it is better for a woman to be overly conservative in detecting lies than to be too gullible and fall victim to dishonest men. One possible way women can determine whether or not a man will be committed and fully invested in their children is to examine his physical features, especially on his face. One study found that females pick mates who have similar facial features as their fathers (even adoptive fathers) (Bereczkei et al., 2004). First, subjects were shown one picture of an adopted daughter’s father when she was a little girl. Then they examined four other pictures, one being the actual daughter’s husband. Next, the subjects ranked the four pictures according to how similar each of the four faces is to the father’s picture. The results showed that the daughters’ husbands closely resembled their adopted fathers. More importantly, fathers who gave their daughters a lot of emotional support during their childhood shared the most similarities in facial features with their sons-in-law. This implies that the women have a template of their father’s phenotype and use that as a guide to choose a mate. In selecting a mate, women use their father’s phenotype as a guideline for making sure that her mate will be as committed to their future children as their fathers were to them. As the previous study indicates, the face seems to play a significant role in mate selection. Another study found that that a woman can determine a man’s affinity for infants (which predicted a woman’s long-term attraction to him) as well as his testosterone level (which predicted her short-term attraction to him) through his facial expressions (Roney et al., 2006). The experimenters first gathered testosterone concentrations from a group of males and then tested them for their affinity towards infants. Then they gave a group of female subjects photographs of these men and asked them to rate each man’s testosterone level and his affinity to children. Results showed that the females were accurate in rating the men’s testosterone level and affinity to children. They also associated attractiveness with a high level of affinity to children. Perhaps women have evolved a device to determine these levels just by looking at a man’s face; this is particularly advantageous because having a high level of affinity to children is a possible indication of a man’s willingness to commit and invest in children. By looking at a man’s face, it might be easier for women to decipher if a potential mate is likely to cheat or commit. Another interesting study by Cunningham and Russel (2004) shows that women could also tell whether or not a man will commit by examining what kind of gender role he takes. The female subjects ranked commitment as something important to them; in addition, they associated commitment with femininity. Thus, females might examine a man’s traits and see if he is somewhat feminine and use this cue as a way of determining whether or not he would be truly willing to commit. Even though it might seem as if men have the advantage of “spreading his seeds” and producing many children at such a fast rate, it is comforting to know that women probably evolved devices to see if a man is lying about his intention to commit. Facial similarities to one’s father, facial expression cues, and a man’s gender role seem to play important roles in assessing a man’s likelihood of cheating. References Bereczkei, T., Gyuris, P., & Weisfeld, G.E. (2004, June). Sexual imprinting and human mate choice. Biological Sciences, 271(1544), 1129-1135. Retrieved April 7, 2009, from The Royal Society database. Cunningham, S., & Russell, P. (2004, August). The influence of gender roles on evolved partner preferences. Sexualities, Evolution &amp; Gender, 6(2), 131-150. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from PsycINFO database. Johnson, A.K., Barnacz, A., Constantino, et al. (2004, December). Female deception detection as a function of commitment. Personality and Individual Differences. 37, 1417-1424. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from Science Direct database. Roney, J.R., Hanson, K.N., Durante, K.M., & Maestripieri., D. (2006, March). Reading men’s faces: women’s mate attractiveness judgments track men’s testosterone and interest in infants. Biological Sciences, 273, 2169–2175. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from The Royal Society database.

Image Source: www.cartoonstock.com/newscartoons/cartoonists/jlv/lowres/

Topic: Sham Detection: Deceit Detection Strategies of Females
Contributor: Kimberly Clark
Class: Psych 452: Spring 2009

Due to the fact that “If one parent gets away with investing less than his or her fair share of costly resources in each child ... he will be better off, since he will have more to spend on other children by other sexual partners, and so propagate more of his genes” (Dawkins, 1989, p. 140). This simple reality suggests that should one be better at deceiving the other partner into bearing the burden, they will be free and able to spread their seed. More specifically, if a man is smart enough to dupe a female into carrying his genes to term and provide child care, he is able to freely move on to many more mating opportunities. The female, however, has much more limited options since she is the one who physically carries the child for 9 months and then must actually engage in parenting with lasts for another 18 years; thereby tying herself up holding the ball, figuratively, while the man is off and running. While the woman “starts off by investing more than the male, in the form of her large, food-rich egg, a mother is already at the moment of conception ‘committed’ to each child more deeply than the father is” (Dawkins, 1989, p. 146); on the contrary, a man must invest very little time and resources in furthering the assurance of the survival of his genes. “The female sex is exploited, and the fundamental evolutionary basis for the exploitation is the fact that eggs are larger than sperms” (Dawkins, 1989, p. 146).

For this reason, in the EEA, it was advantageous for women to develop strategies to recognize deception so that she was able spot a man who was actually willing to assist in child rearing and would not seize a mating opportunity and run. Strategies for the detection of liars may have evolved over time, since they assured a woman success in securing a stable mate who would contribute valuable resources to her children alone. These detection strategies will be discussed in the following research presented below.

The sad fact, according to Dawkins, is that “if any abandoning is going to be done, it is likely to be the father who abandons the mother rather than the other way around” (Dawkins, 1989, p. 146). Since this would leave the woman at a huge disadvantage, and it would behoove her to find a mate who would stick around and invest resources, she would benefit greatly by refusing to copulate until she has assurance that her mate will prove to be a faithful companion. Since evolutionary stable strategies, as set forth by Maynard Smith in Dawkin’s book, suggest that it is possible for a population of coy females (those who wait to copulate) and faithful males (those willing to engage in courtships and wait for sex) to evolve; women who abstain from copulating, or as Dawkins refers to is as ‘not playing her ace,’ put themselves in a greater bargaining position against men and engage in what he calls the domestic-bliss strategy. According to this strategy, it would follow that “natural selection will tend to favour females who become good at seeing through such deception” (Dawkins, 1989, p. 146) in men who are not faithful. Although it would be natural for men to exploit the female and take advantage of a mating opportunity, even if it meant employing means of deceit, “Natural selection by sharpening up the ability of each partner to detect dishonest in the other, has kept large-scale deceit down to a fairly low level” (Dawkins, 1989, p. 155).

In a study entitled Detecting Deceit via Analysis of Verbal and Non-verbal Behavior, conducted by Vrij, Edward, Roberts & Bull (2000), 73 nursing students were asked to view a video witnessing a purse snatching from a patient in a hospital. Thereafter, in 2 follow-up interviews, the participants were asked 3 questions in which they were to accurately recall what happened in the video during the first interview, and then to lie about what they saw during the second interview in response to the same 3 questions. Although they explored many different hypotheses in their study, we will focus on Hypothesis 1: Liars display a longer latency period, more ah and non-ah speech disturbances and used a slower speech rate and fewer illustrations and hand/finger movements than people who told the truth. In support of their hypothesis, it was concluded that “Compared to truth tellers, liars made fewer illustrators and hand and finger movements, had more ah-speech disturbances, and waited longer before giving an answer” (Vrij, Edward, Roberts & Bull, 2000, p. 249). Additionally, they mentioned in their study that individuals who tell high-stakes lies are easier to detect than those who tell low-stake lies and that “80% of truths and lies can be detected in high stakes situations while paying attention to behavioral signs of emotion” (Vrij, et al., 2000, p. 251). An eighty percent assurance rate of detecting a liar is pretty solid evidence that we have innate mechanisms that may have evolved in the EEA to detect deceit. Females would be wise to utilize these inborn lie detector traits in selecting a faithful mate.

Further, in a study conducted by Buss & Duntley (2008), “antiexploitation adaptations that evolved to prevent one from becoming a victim of exploitation” was explored (p. 53). Women who are physically attractive are often times subject to more frequent attempts of exploitation due to their obvious signs of fertility displayed in their beauty. As nature has confirmed, strategies have evolved that aide animals in detecting poor physical health in their prey. Cheetahs, for example, instinctually detect the weakest gazelles when selecting which one they should attack. Just as instincts have developed in regards to successful exploitation, it would naturally follow that defenses for such exploitation would coeveolve as a defense, and those who developed such protective mechanisms would survive; therefore, passing on the antiexploitation genes. This very adaptation has presented itself in gazelles in response to their defense against cheetahs. Gazelles have engaged in “an adaptation for a defense . . .known as “stotting” (Buss & Duntley, 2008, p. 55).This is where gazelles bounce high in the air several times to exhibit to the cheetah that they are in spectacular physical condition. These gazelles who exhibit stotting remain largely unharmed by cheetahs. In regards to mating, “Given the costs of being sexually deceived, it would be astonishing if women had not evolved defenses designed to prevent falling victim to deception” (Buss & Duntley, 2008, p. 56). Bus & Dentley (2008) explore such defenses that women may employ such as withholding sex until a man proves himself faithful and “specialized mind-reading abilities to infer men’s desires and intentions” (p. 56).

In the last study I reviewed, conducted by Vrij, Evans, Akehurst & Mann (2004), they looked at how fast people could make quick, reliable and valid judgments about the verbal and non-verbal behavior of liars and people telling the truth and if they were able to detect deceit after making these quick judgments. The results indicate that not only were people able to make reliable and valid judgments, but there was a 74% accuracy rate as to detection of truth tellers and liars (Vrij, Evans, Akehurst & Mann, 2004, 283).

Current evidence suggests that a ‘tit for a tat’ is true in the case of the coevolution regarding deception strategies and antiexploitation defenses. Unfortunately these natural defenses cannot be counted on when a woman is under the influence of alcohol or Rohypnol, nor if she encounters a psychopath who disarms these “evolved antiexploitation denfenses” (Buss & Duntley, 2008, p. 58); therefore, it would be wise for women since the cost of deception in mating is very high to be alert and keep her senses (and evolved defenses) clear.

References

Buss, D. M. & Duntley, J.D. (2008). Adaptations for Exploitation. Group Dynamics:
Theory, Research and Practice, 12(1), 53-62.

Dawkins, R. (1989). The Selfish Gene (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Vrij, A., Edward, K., Roberts, K.P. & Bull, R. (2000). Detecting deceit via analysis of
verbal and non-verbal behavior. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 24(4), 239-263.

Vrij, A., Evans, H., Akehurst, L. & Mann, S. (2004). Rapid judgments in assessing verbal
and nonverbal cues: Their potential for deception researchers and lie detection.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 283-296.

Make Sure a Male is Not Secretly Committed to Another Woman, or is Unwilling to Break Former Commitments

It is in women’s reproductive interest to be paired in a monogamous relationship with a man. A male that is free and unencumbered is more able to make a commitment and share his resources than a man who is already sharing himself with another woman or family.

La Cerra (1994) developed a study to assess the hypothesis that women would show a preference for men who interact in a positive manner with children. To test this, she created slide images with the same female models in five different situations: a woman standing alone, a woman involved in interacting with an eighteen-year-old infant, including smiling, reaching out for, and making eye contact with the infant, a woman ignoring a crying child, a woman and a child in a neutral position just facing each other, and a woman who was vacuuming a rug in a living room. The 240 undergraduate men who participated in this study viewed these slide images and then had to rate how attractive they found the subjects to be as a neighbor, a friend, a date, a sexual partner, and as a partner in marriage. The voting scale ranged from –5 to +5, or very unattractive to very attractive. The results of the study showed that men found women who were standing alone (+2.7) were just as attractive as the women who were positively interacting with the child (+2.7). In fact, regardless of what the women were doing in all five situations including ignoring the crying child, men rated their attractiveness exactly the same.

Getting Males to Compete (Choose the Winner)

By choosing the winner in a competition, females are selecting for presumably better genes in a mate. These "winning" genes are then passed on to offspring, who will then have a better chance of winning if they compete.

Low, 188 Male competitions can often be influenced by female coalitions among macaques and chimpanzees. Female coalitions often tend to males that take part in power struggles.

Evaluating Male Status and Dominance

If you become a star, you don’t change, everyone else does.
Kirk Douglas, American film star.

Males in positions of power and status have greater reproductive success than males in a lesser standing. Females who chose powerful males for mates also experience superior reproductive success, since the "powerful" genes are likely to passed onto their children, who will in turn experience greater reproductive success. Being the mate of a male in power also allows the female to share in the resources (food, protection, etc.) that such status provides. 

While Dustin Hoffman was being interviewed in a restaurant, a crowd of young women started to form around him. At one point in the interview, Dustin Hoffman went over to the crowd of women and shouted, "Where were you when I needed you?" (noted in Symons, 1979).

As is so eloquently illustrated by Dustin Hoffman’s question, females have evolved to choose men on the basis of more than physical appearance. While Mick Jagger has no doubt had exponentially more opportunities for sex than most men, it is unlikely that these countless opportunities would have been made available to him had he not been the lead singer of the Rolling Stones. Mick Jagger the school bus driver, or Mick Jagger the mailman certainly would not have experienced the attention of so many eager women.

A woman’s reproductive success is largely dependent on the resources she has available to her in raising her children. Fame goes hand in hand with resources, such as money and power. By selecting to mate with famous males, women are increasing their chances, and the chances of their offspring, of survival. The chances of producing a child with the traits that made his father famous also increases a female’s reproductive success.

Obviously, the average woman will not have the opportunity to choose a famous man as the father of her children. But all one needs to do is look at the covers of magazines at the checkout stand to see where female fantasies lie. The likes of Ricky Martin, Regis Philben and George Clooney often adorn the cover of People magazine, but your local car mechanic Smitty will never be featured (unless he wins a million dollars on a game show, and even then his chances are slim).

Source: http://images.huffingtonpost.com/gen/1425/

Socioeconomic cues to a man’s provisioning potential and capability can provide valuable information to females when choosing a mate. Females may seek to mate with a man who displays his abundance of resources for the material and social advantages to her and her children.

Studying the structure of hunting and gathering societies is probably the best resource we have in theorizing about our ancestors. We will assume that ancestral men had a very clear status hierarchy, and those at the top received the majority of resources first, which then trickled down to those at the bottom (Betzig, 1986). Obviously with status comes access to all the best resources of a tribe, including better food, better geographical location, and medical care. As previously mentioned, the offspring of higher-status males get more of the resources than the offspring of lower-status males. Women would desire men with high social status because this position is linked to the control of resources.

Source: http://media.ebaumsworld.com/picture/cartapwned/

This preference holds true in the modern United States. Buss and Barnes’ (1986) study revealed a female preference for high status ranked only slightly behind valuing decent financial prospects. Another study by Buss (1989) found that American women rated social status between "important" and "indispensable," while men rated it only "desirable" to "not very important." In Buss’ extensive international study, the findings were again that women valued social status in a potential partner more than men did. For example, in West Germany women valued social status almost forty percent more than men did.

Finally, Baize and Schroeder (1995) conducted a study of personal ads in an attempt to correlate women’s preferences for certain traits with the number of responses to men’s ads that exhibited those traits. Their study used 120 ads placed in one West Coast newspaper and in one paper from the Midwest. They found that women responded more often to men who indicated higher incomes and more education in their personal ads.

Older Males

In baboons, males need to mature before they can hold higher positions of social status. This trend seems to hold true among human males. In Buss and Schmidt’s (1993) international study which represented thirty-seven different cultures, women on average preferred men who were about three and a half years older than they were. While men’s financial resources usually peak when they are in their forties and fifties, it should also be considered that significantly older men have a higher death rate, and for that reason would be less sought after as mates because they would not live long enough to provide for their offspring. Thus, reproductive potential is valuable for both sexes (albeit moreso for women).  It should also be noted that a large age difference can cause incompatibility in couples.

In modern societies of the West, income generally increases with experience (Jencks, 1979). For example, thirty-year-old men in the United States earn $14,000 more than men ten years younger, but $7,000 less than men ten years older. This can be likened to more traditional cultures where physical strength and hunting skills are more highly valued. For men, physical strength peaks in their late twenties to early thirties. There are no studies noted, but it is hypothesized that a man is most proficient at hunting after his physical peak when he is still in excellent shape but has also had the chance to accrue more wisdom and experience. If older men were better hunters, then they would be most desirable as mates because they have more resources.  Indeed, as age and experience increase, a man's ability to accrue resources increases - as does his desirability to women.  For instance, Baize and Schroeder’s (1995) research using newspaper personal ads provided further evidence that actual mating behavior is affected by mate preferences of women. The strongest variable that predicted female response to male personal ads was age. Schroeder and Baize found that older men received a greater response compared to younger men.

Source: http://julieluongo.files.wordpress.com/2007/12/

[Mealey from p 223.] However, a woman may find that in a man age is an unreliable indicator of resources and status. Hill (1993) has noted that human males live longer than other male animals. Therefore, although older age indicates superiority in other animals and is used to designate higher status in humans, it may no longer serve as an adequate yard stick in contemporary society. According to Jones (1996b) increased age does not dependably correlate with increased fertility in men. Women therefore ought to take age into account in equal importance with other factors such as physical appearance, social skills, and intelligence.

Good Looks as Related to Male Status

Good looks reveal higher genetic and health status and may be more important than age when a woman is looking for a short-term partner. When a woman uses looks as a guide she is not necessarily looking for a male with monetary or food resources to invest in a family (Gangestad & Thornhill, 1997; Kendrick et al, 1990). Furthermore, Daly and Wilson (1999) concluded that good looks do not necessarily correlate with good health in a modern, medically advanced and sanitary society. It is in our evolutionary past that signs of health, body symmetry and testosterone-related traits became cues of desirability for women.

Body symmetry (which in a 1998 study, Manning, Scutt and Lewis-Jones correlated with sperm production) and muscularity, for example, are both testosterone-related and are attractive to women. Such traits, note Gangestad and Thornhill (1997a), are true indicators as to genotype and immunological strength. Barber (1995a), Casdan (1996) and Frost (1988 and 1994) found that women prefer men who are taller than average, whose facial features tend to be more angular and whose complexions are rougher and darker—all traits that indicate higher testosterone levels.

In addition, a male who looks more dominant than other males is usually more sexually active than those who appear to be passive (Mazur, Halpern and Udry, 1994). A physically robust and socially dominant male tends to have had his first sexual experience at an earlier age and has had more partners than his less robust, less dominant peers (Thornhill & Gangestad, 1994). Fertility and attractiveness in men related to secondary sexual characteristics appear later but also last longer in men than in women, they decline more gradually in men than in women, found Jones (1996).

Phelan and Burnham propose that when looking for a woman "[Men] should consider wearing elevator shoes. Women place high value on male height. In some sense it may be correlated with status. Phelan states, "In business, an inch of height is worth more that $1000 a year."

While good looks are important indicators of health and superior genes, it seems that the female perception of what is "handsome" can change according to the status and qualities a man possesses. When a woman is attracted to a man solely on the basis of his good looks, this attraction can easily fade if he proves to be dull in other categories. A handsome face can soon become less attractive if a man proves to be unintelligent, cruel, powerless or uncaring. Further, a man who, on first impression, is not typically handsome can become more attractive to a woman if he consistently displays valued qualities such as kindness, generosity, intelligence and nurturing. For many females beauty, it seems, is indeed in the eye of the beholder.

Looking for Males With Good Social Skills and Intelligence

Women have to try to assess men’s potential to invest in their children using fairly indirect cues. Often, they resort to predicting the likelihood of a male’s future successes, rather than a man’s present successes. To this end, women may search for men with qualities that reliably predict success in the future—such as intelligence, and the ability to skillfully negotiate social situations.

Source: http://www.stus.com/sv/images

Topic: Female Mate Selection: Looking for males with good social skills and intelligence Contributor: Boyoung Kim Females need to assess the amount that a male will invest in offspring. Although, good genes and health are easier to see physically, a male’s investment in his children is not so obvious. Therefore, females prefer males who have better social skills as well as intelligence. These men are the ones who will be successful, and thus invest more money, time, and resources in their offspring. Women need to know that their mate will invest in their child as much as she will. Women are not only looking for a man with good genes, but they are also attracted to a man who is more willing to invest in offspring. La Cerra (1995) used photographs to show that women have an evolved preference for men who express willingness to provide for their children. She found that women responded more positively to a man interacting with a happy baby than to a man standing alone, and more negatively to a man ignoring an unhappy baby than to a man standing alone. Similarly, Bleske-Rechek et al. (2006) replicated this study and had consistent conclusions with La Cerra. Women have an evolved sensitivity to cues of a man’s willingness to invest in offspring; women’s judgments of a man’s attractiveness as a long-term partner were negatively affected when shown ignoring a baby in distress. Also, women are more sensitive to the characteristics of the men who would invest more in children. The good evaluations of these men may come for the fact that women are more sensitive to the characteristics that would imply a better partner i.e. kindness and compassion. Resources are very big factor for women when they are choosing a mate. Gustavsson et al, (2008) conducted a research study in Sweden to see the sex difference in mate preference. One of their predictions was that women prefer men with strong resource holding potential. They conducted research based on singles ads, both in print and online. Their findings matched their hypothesis. Women, more so than men, listed good economic resources as a preferred trait. The vast majority of men listed their resources, i.e. described their access to or preference for greater income and professionalism. Women acknowledge that a man with more resources is likely to invest more in their offspring. Human females must take into account the hardships of raising offspring, because their children by far, need the most care and time devoted to their development. A woman, after a nine month gestation period, also raises the children for an additional eighteen plus years. She cannot do this by herself, and so she needs a mate who will help take care of the children. Researchers have suggested that women need to assess these qualities indirectly. One of the ways is facial perception. Facial masculinity has been proposed as an honest signal of genetic quality based on evidence that testosterone makes facial physiognomy more masculine, with high testosterone in turn being sustainable only by healthier men due to the hormone’s immunosuppressive effects (Roney et al., 2006). Roney et al. asked men to complete an interest of infants test as well as give their saliva to test for hormones. Afterwards, women were shown pictures of these men and asked to rate if the man in the picture liked children, was masculine, physically attractive, and kind. The results of this study showed that women were accurate in determining how masculine the man was. Meaning, the men who the women had rated as more masculine did in fact have higher levels of testosterone. More importantly, there was a significant correlation in women’s ratings of the man liking children and the men’s score on the infant test. This study showed that face perception is a way of assessing qualities in a potential mate, as well as the man’s paternal quality. For women looking for mates, a man with an interest in children will also have a greater interest in providing more for their offspring. Attractive female with male that takes an investment in their offspring Attractive female with male that takes an investment in their offspring When an attractive female woman is looking for a potential mate, she is showing the males that she has great genes and that she is fertile. In return for these things, an attractive woman wants resources for the children. When an attractive woman is looking for a short term partner, she will look for a man who is also attractive physically. However, when looking for a long-term partner, a female will look for a mate who is secure and will have success in the future. A woman will prefer a man who is going to have more money and a better job so their children can have these benefits as well. Buss and Shackelford (2008) studied how attractive women rated potential mate characteristics. They rated: hypothesized good-gene indicators, hypothesized good investment indicators, good parenting indicators, and good partner indicators. The results were that highly attractive women had higher standards for all four characteristics. Overall, men need to show that they will invest in offspring. However, if their mate is attractive, and thus has a higher mate value, then the males should invest more in the offspring. The woman offers her genes and nurturing for her child, and so the man must offer the resources to compensate for good looks. Women are extremely choosy when it comes to their mates. They not only need a mate with good genes, but they also need a mate who will give them plenty of resources so that the children can grow up healthy, and eventually have their own offspring. Women prefer men who are willing to provide for their children and have more economic opportunities. This need has been evolutionarily inputted into their minds, so that when they see a man’s face, women can assess his parental quality. Also, if the genes of the mother are higher, as in the mother is very attractive, than the resources the father need to go up. Women look for males with higher social skills and intelligence so that they judge for themselves, if their mate will be able to provide for their offspring. References Bleske-Rechek, A, Remiker, M. W., Swanson, M.R., & Zeug, N.M. (2006). Women more than men attend to indicators of good character: two experimental demonstrations. Evolutionary Psychology, 4, 248-261. Buss, D.M., & Shackelford, T.K. (2008). Attractive women want it all: good genes, economic investment, parenting proclivities, and emotional commitment. Evolutionary Psychology. 6, 134-146. Gustavsson, L, Johnsson, J.I., & Uller, T (2008). Mixed support for sexual selection theories of mate preferences in the swedish population. Evolutionary Psychology. 6, 575-585. La Cerra, M. M. (1995). Evolved mate preferences in women: Psychological adaptations for assessing a man’s willingness to invest in offspring. Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara. (Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: the Sciences and Engineering Mar 1995, Vol 55(9-B), p 4149) Roney, J. R., Hanson, K. N., Durante, K. M., & Maestripieri, D. (2006). Reading men's faces: women's mate attractiveness judgments track men's testosterone and interest in infants. The Royal Society, 273, 2169-2175. Relevant Website links Women more than men attend to indicators of good character: two experimental demonstrations: http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/ep04248261.pdf Attractive women want it all: good genes, economic investment, parenting proclivities, and emotional commitment: http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/EP06134146.pdf Mixed support for sexual selection theories of mate preferences in the swedish population: http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/EP06575585.pdf Reading men's faces: women's mate attractiveness judgments track men's testosterone and interest in infants: http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/ep04248261.pdf

Reserving Sexuality to a Relationship Context

Topic: The mystery of female orgasm Contributor: Laura Jimenez Class: Psyc 452 Spring 2009 From an evolutionary perspective female orgasm has remain a mystery, since is something unique to human beings. A lot has been said, but it still remains as a mystery, due to the fact that evolutionary psychologists and biologist have not been able to back track why this physiological trait was developed and evolved in females. It has been theorized that female orgasm is an evolutionary by-product of male orgasm. This said to be the case because it is a neutral tagalong trait that persist because it is adaptive in the male sex, and because of its developmental underpinnings, it is difficult to lose it in the other sex (Barish, 2005). Moreover, others hypothesize that it is not a by-product but an adaptation. While other biologist have debated on whether if female orgasm has a function or not. Some actually hypothesizes that female orgasm evolved to promote intimacy and pair bonding (Cohen & Belsky, 2008). While others have hypothesized that female orgasm has evolved as a motivator for men to seek sex (Eschler, 2004). Moreover, we do know for a fact that female orgasm is not necessary for reproduction, all is needed is for the man to have an orgasm (ejaculation of male gametes). The female orgasm is thought to be a developmental by-product, just like the male’s nipple, serves no function, but it is there. The male orgasm is an adaptation, just like the female nipple is due to natural selection functional traits. Adaptations are supposed to increase reproductive success, and these adaptations do not always come to continue serving the functions for which they evolved (Puts & Dawood, 2006). Moreover, the also identify what by-product is, which might be that the absence of apparent design in a trait for its efficient function. By-products appear to decrease in size efficacy in the opposite sex, which is why the male nipple is said to be a by-product, yet this does not clearly indicate that so should be the female orgasm. According to Puts and Dawood (2006) female orgasm is viewed as a copulatory mate choice mechanism.  It is thought to be an adaptation because it is thought that female orgasm might facilitate whether should the sperm should be uptake and transported to the female’s reproductive tract or not (Puts &Dawood, 2006). While Cohen and Belsky (2008) indicate that females tend to experience more copulatory orgasm when they mate with males of higher physical attractiveness than those with low physical attractiveness. This indicates that females may be more willing to reuptake the sperms of a male who appears to have a higher reproductive success than those who do not. It is also said by Eschler (2004) that female orgasm is likely to be an adaptation, since during copulation the orgasm increases the chances of conception. This is due to the aiding the retention of 5% more of sperms in the reproductive tract (Eschler, 2004).  Puts and Dawood (2006) also identify factors that indicate that orgasm in females is an adaptation by saying that orgasm may allow earlier entry of the sperm to cervix. They also indicate that female orgasm causes the patters of brain activation and hormone release, which is associated with increase in uterine contractions, lower uterine pressure, and movement of semen into the uterus (Puts & Dawood, 2006). Therefore, it is more likely for female orgasm to be explained as an adaptation than as a by-product. These researches have provided many insights that allow for explanation of female orgasm as an adaptation than as a by-product. Elizabeth Llyod wrote a book based on what she thinks might be why females have the capacity to orgasm, specifically pointing out that is due to a by-product, just like the male nipple is. Barish’s research (2005) and the research of Puts and Dawood (2006) attempts to clarify why is Lloyd wrong in her assumption that the female orgasm is an evolutionary by-product. Nonetheless, all these investigations attempt to explain the mystery of the function of the female orgasm since it is not necessarily or essential for reproductive success, yet it can be seen as an evolutionary adaptation that might facilitate reproductive success.  Reference: Barash, David P. (2005). Let a Thousand Orgasms Bloom, Evolutionary Psychology. 3: 347-354. Eschler, Lara. (2004). The physiology of the female orgasm as a proximate mechanism, Sexualities, Evolution & Gende'r.6.2-3, 171-194. Cohen, D. L., & Belsky, J. (2008). Avoidant romantic attachment and female orgasm: testing an emotion-regulation hypothesis, Attachment & Human Development. 10, 1-10. Puts, D. A., & Dawood, K. (2006). The Evolution of Female Orgasm: Adaptation or Byproduct?, Twin Research and Human Genetics. 9, 467-472.

Topic: Kissing as a valuable resource for women

Contributor: Alec J Locascio

Class: Psych 452, Spring 2009

Kissing is a romantic behavior that is written about in fairy tales and romanticized and fantasized about. But, could there be subconscious tactics at play when kissing takes place? There has been some research on kissing behavior in relation to close relationships that will be summed up in this article. However, it is important to note that the arguments made in this article are based on evolutionary theory, which roots in the idea that certain patterns in behavior among modern humans, conscious or subconscious, are left over from trends or selection effects in the ancestral environment. 

Hughes, Harrison, and Gallup (2007) hypothesize that kissing is of greater importance to females than it is to men because kissing can be used as a tool for making health and quality assessments of a potential mate. Tools are necessary for females who generally should be more discriminative in their mate selection than males, due to greater parental investment and a more limited reproductive potential. Hughes, Harrison, and Gallup (2007) offer evidence to suggest that females are more discriminative than males in kissing behavior as females rated breath and taste as more important than men. This importance of health in a sexual relationship is also shown by van Dijk, van Dulmen-den Broeder, Kaspers, van Dam, Braam, and Huisman (2008). These researchers provided evidence that psychosexual problems (including kissing) were frequent among childhood cancer survivors, and about 20% felt some sexual limitation due to their illness.

Women may also use kissing to engage a man in a short-term romantic relationship with her. She would potentially engage in this for reasons of obtaining resources or creating sexual diversity among offspring. Hughes, Harrison, and Gallup (2007) show that men are more likely to use kissing as a means to get a woman to engage in sex. A woman can therefore lead a man on by kissing him, making him want sex, but being careful only to engage in sex when he is committed to her, at least on a short term basis. However, these researchers also provide evidence that some men may avoid women who demand serious commitments before consenting to sex. Consequentially, men may place less importance on kissing a short-term mate to avoid attachment.

It is also possible that females use kissing as a resource for maintaining an existing relationship. Gullege, Gullege, and Stahman (2003) show in their study that kissing on the lips is seen by both men and women as being more intimate than “Cuddling/Holding,” “Caressing/Stroking,” “Kissing on the Face,” “Backrubs/Massages,” “Hugging,” and “Holding hands.” Also, related to kissing was relationship satisfaction. Since this data is simply is correlation, we cannot conclude that kissing is what caused relationship satisfaction, although it may have. One problem of the Gullege et al. (2003) study was the homogeneity of the sample. They generally had younger (18-24), white, Letter-day Saint, college students participate in the study. This homogeneity as a possible confound begets the necessity of another study with a more diverse sample. One such study by Rostosky, Galliher, Welsh, and Kawaguchi (2000) on adolescent couples indicated that, for both males and females, frequency of kissing predicted the longevity of a relationship. In the study by Hughes, Harrison, and Gallup (2007) females also rated kissing to be overall more important at every stage of a relationship than did males. This gender difference suggests that there is some reason why females value kissing more than males, which could be a tactic to induce bonding with their male partner. This theory is supported by another study by Welsh, Haugen, Widman, Darling, and Grello (2005) which gives evidence that kissing is directly and positively correlated with relationship satisfaction and commitment.

Women also may use kissing an indicator of a man’s commitment to her. Commitment from a male was very important for a woman in the ancestral environment because it provided her and her children with a means of obtaining resources. If her mate was not committed or interested in her, it would be extremely important for her to become aware of this and find a new mate. Wiederman and LaMar (1998) offer evidence which suggests that males find male-female infidelity most upsetting where females find male-male infidelity most upsetting. Even a one time sexual encounter, such as a kiss, with another male was extremely upsetting for a female because a homosexual encounter with another male, compared to a female-female sexual encounter, is definitive of his sexuality. A female-female sexual encounter is more accepted because she is not able to become pregnant, but a male-male sexual encounter denotes loss of interest in the female, and thus, loss of resources for her.

Shackelford, Buss, and Bennett (2002) offer evidence that women are more sensitive to emotional types of infidelity than men are, as men are more sensitive to sexual infidelity. Sexual infidelity on the part of the woman puts the man at risk of cuckoldry, but is less serious for a man, because he can always escape after a sexual encounter. However, emotional infidelity on the part of a man, such as intimacy displayed through kissing (Gullege et al., 2003), could denote a supply of resources to a partner outside the dyadic relationship. Women are using kissing (or observing kissing in this case) as a tool for assessing emotional infidelity in her mate.

In summery, kissing is used differently by men and women to accomplish gender-specific goals. Women use kissing to determine the health of a mate, initiate a relationship, maintain a relationship, as an indicator on the strength of a relationship, and to determine a potential loss of recourses. Men use kissing as a simple means to engage in sex. It is also important to recognize that although we can apply theory based on the ancestral environment, pronounced social differences exist with the modern world. One such difference is with a man supplying resources to a woman. Although a resource supplying man is undoubtedly valued today, he would be much more valued in the ancestral environment. This is due to a growing male/female power equality and male/female resource gathering capabilities becoming uniformly similar.

References: Gulledge, A.K., Gulledge, M.H., & Stahmann, R.F. (2003). Romantic physical affection types and relationship satisfaction. American Journal of Family Therapy, 31(4), 233-242. Hughes, S.M., Harrison, M.A., and Gallup, G.G. Jr. (2007). Sex differences in romantic kissing among college students: An evolutionary perspective. Evolutionary Psychology, 5(1), 612-631.

Rostosky, S.S., Galiher, R.V., Welsh, D.P, & Kawaguchi, M.C. (2000). Sexual behaviors and relationship qualities in late adolescent couples. Journal of Adolescence, 23(5), 583-397.

Shackelford, T.K., Buss, D.M., & Bennett, K. (2002). Forgiveness or breakup: Sex differences in responses to a partner’s infidelity. Cognition and Emotion, 16(2), 299-307 van Dijk, E.M., van Dulmen-den Broeder, E.; Kaspers, G. J. L. van Dam, E. W. C. M., Braam, K. I., Huisman, J. (2008). Psychosexual Functioning in Childhood Cancer Survivors. Psycho-Oncology, 17(5), 506-511. Welsh, D.P., Haugen, P.T., Widman, L., Darling, N., & Grello, C.M. (2005). Kissing is good: A developmental investigation of sexuality in adolescent romantic couples. Sexuality  Research & Social Policy: A Journal of the NSRC, 2(4), 32-41. Wiederman, M.W. & LeMar, L. (1998)."Not with Him You Don't!": Gender and Emotional Reactions to Sexual Infidelity during Courtship. Journal of Sex Research, 35(3), 288-297.

Web Links:
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/10/AR2008021001197.html
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070830121629.htm
http://evolutionarypsychology.tribe.net/thread/bc324b09-4a5c-48ae-853a-02d6b977d4eb
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-479512/How-women-choose-Mr-Right-Its-kiss.html

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Women have evolved mental mechanisms that aid in selecting a potential mate. As we have seen, preferences for health, intelligence, honesty, commitment, superior genes, wealth and status are among the many standards that women have evolved to aid them in mate choice. A poor mating can be extremely costly to a woman and can seriously hinder her reproductive potential with mates of higher quality. Poor matings may also decrease the survival and reproductive success of offspring.  Therefore, females employing a long-term mating strategy must be attuned to potential mate characteristics.

This "screening process" of potential mates can take time, as males can lie and bluff in serving their own reproductive interests. In general, females should prefer to investigate the qualities of a potential mate up close. A relationship context serves to allow females to gather information and make an informed decision before engaging in sexual intercourse with her mate.

Females suffer risks in practicing short-term sexuality outside of relationship contexts. First, she may become pregnant through a poor mating, which can severely decrease her reproductive success with other higher quality mates. Second, "fast" females who engage in casual sexual activity outside of a relationship context may earn a reputation for being promiscuous, which could further decrease her reproductive success. Given males’ paternity insecurity and resultant paranoia and jealousy, a "fast" or "easy" female may have more difficulty in securing a long-term mate than would a female who is valued for her chastity.

Thiessen (1994) suggests that, in general, females carry a more conservative approach to sex compared to males. Thiesen describes that females tend to become sexually active later than males. They are also less likely to participate in extra marital affairs, masturbation, and homosexual behavior. This conservative approach can be explained, in part, by the higher investment in reproduction by females versus males. Reproductive investment by females includes the physical and psychological changes that take place during pregnancy. Thiessen describes that though females express a more conservative approach to sexual activity than males, they display greater variability concerning sexuality. Male sexual expression is more consistent than female sexual expression. She is more likely to wax and wane between feelings of inhibition and aggressive sexual expression.. In short, she is more often likely to say, “Honey, I have a headache,” than he is.

Source: http://www.cartoonstock.com

Looking for males that other females find attractive (’sexy son hypothesis’)

SOME POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES:

Hypergamy

"A woman in love will do almost anything for a man, except give up the desire to improve him" (Winoker, 1989).

Being too selective

The Cinderella Complex

A woman's choosiness, like many other things, may fall on a spectrum, where some women are not choosy enough on one end, and too choosy on the other. A contemporary term was coined by Colette Dowling in her 1990 book called, "The Cinderella Complex: Women's Hidden Fear of Independence," to examine the reasons behind some women's desire to be taken care of by others. An alternative definition comes from a contemporary website that is used to define common slang, urbandictionary.com, which emphasizes the ways in which excessive choosiness can undermine relationships. Thus, the "Cinderella complex" can be defined as: “When a woman (often submissive and needy) spends all her time searching for her "prince charming" to come rescue her; brainwashed by rosy romantic images and ideals. Women with this personality trait often lose good guys because they feel the guy they are presently with doesn't fit their ideal of the perfect man. She dreams of living a fairy tale lifestyle where she meets this prince and they fall madly in love and live happily ever after in a magical fantasy where all of her needs and desires are taken care of. ‘I just KNOW that one day my prince charming will come rescue me, and we'll have a magical kiss under the stars and he'll whisper I love you and he'll take me away to his castle and we'll live happily ever after!’" (retrieved from http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=cinderella%20complex).

Source: www.angelicdreamz.com/store/Barbie/2007/exclusives/

This mindset of entitlement is best exemplified by the current culture surrounding weddings. According to the UK newspaper, the Independent, “British couples lavish an average of £16,000 on their "Perfect Day" - a 50 per cent increase since 1998. More women than ever are leaving reality behind to squeeze their 6ft-long trains into Cinderella carriages to live the fantasy of the Big White Wedding.” (The Independent, 2007) Why this increase in expense and lavishness? Some believe it is a show of social and economic status. In other words, a couple can show off to all their friends and family not only their ability to burn money, but also their originality in designing the wedding. Also, there is a fear there is a “Keeping up with the Jones’” effect where because a woman’s girlfriend spent $60,000 on her wedding, she must do the same or greater.

This Dream Wedding Syndrome is perhaps more of just a symptom of the entitlement felt by women with a Cinderella complex. Why do they feel this need to be rescued by a Prince? Is it love, or perhaps a more practical reason? Commentator Chrys Ingraham says, “Cinderella dreams of a day when her hand- some prince will sweep her away into a hap- pily-ever-after life, free from class and sex oppression and away from the abuses of the workplace (Ingraham, 2004). Certainly in this day and age there are less and less abuses of the workplace. Women have found a working identity and respect in the corporate world. But perhaps it is too late. This idea of rescue has been created, told through story, and ingrained in the hearts and minds of little girls everywhere.

This story is told now through different forms of media. The most predominate are books and film. According to Jeanne Dubino in her journal article, The Cinderella Complex: Romance Fiction, Patriarchy, and Capitalism, “Thirty-one percent of all women readers read romance fiction.” (Dubino, 1993) These mainstream books often tell the story of a strong man coming to a weak woman’s aid. These stories would not be complete without an element of romance. In order for it to echo the story of Cinderella, there must be a Prince Charming that looks to find the diamond in the rough, romance her, and take her back to his castle.

This story is just as powerful in film. In the journal of American culture, Author Karol Kelley says, “In both Cinderella and Pretty Woman the male sex is ranked higher in wealth, occupation, and status than the female sex. Edward is a businessman working with male executives, lawyers, bankers and senators. Vivian provides female services for men. Lacking job skills she is unable to support herself by any other kind of work open to her.” (Kelly 94) The theme of rescue from a high status male is so prevalent in film that the “Cinderella Complex” even has its own film genre. According to Box Office Mojo, Pretty Woman is the highest grossing Cinderella Complex movie second only to My Big Fat Greek Wedding which earned $241 million dollars. And now over five Cinderella complex movies made since 1980 have made over 100 million dollars at the box office (Box Office Mojo).

Perhaps this syndrome is ingrained before children have the opportunity to read and see books and movies. Rather it is created in the home by parents treating their daughters like princesses and giving them whatever they want. The decline of discipline and rise of affluence and has corrupted many girls and landed them on MTV’s “My Super Sweet Sixteen” in which sixteen year old girls are thrown million dollar parties and yet cry if they are not given the right BMW M-class. Of course, this has had a backlash. Julie Abbott suggests when talking to your little girl, “tell her that marrying a man does not guarantee he will be a good husband. Mention that roughly half of all marriages today end in divorce. We must teach our daughters that they are OUR princesses, not the world's, and that they should start early trying to find happiness on their own, with or without a Prince Charming. (Abbott, 2006)

This Cinderella effect is often used as a reproductive strategy for females. If they play the role, their high status Prince Charming male with come for them. However, this complex seems to be alienating much of the male population and in fact is hurting the females who use it. They may often find themselves not in the Princes castle, but rather at home on a Friday night reading about it in a romance novel.

Female perception of a shortage of good husband material

The ’groupie’ phenomenon

FEMALE PROBLEM: ATTRACTING THE BEST POSSIBLE MALE

POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS:

[Mealey p 237] being unfaithful If a woman is dissatisfied with her husband she may have an extramarital fling or affair. In a 1992 study Small found that women stray across cultures. Bloomstein and Schwarz (1983) cited two main reasons for feminine straying in industrialized nations. They were revenge and dissatisfaction. A fling is usually a brief revenge tactic directed at an unfaithful or inattentive husband, whereas an affair is usually longer and a result of a general dissatisfaction. Townsend (1998) says that for a woman her long-term faithfulness may be secured by her husband’s attentiveness even if he is unfaithful.</font>

The men typically chosen for these trysts were those with “good genes” (Gangestad and Thornhill, 1997b). Orgasm and thus sperm retention were reportedly greater in these illicit relationships than with stable partners, enhancing the possibility of superior progeny from the extramarital conception. </font>

Rancour-Laferriere, 1983 suggests that a woman’s orgasm signals sexual and thus relationship satisfaction to her partner. Also in 1983, Blumstein and Schwartz concluded that since low sexual satisfaction is connected to low relationship satisfaction, a woman who is not sexually satisfied is more likely to find another lover. A woman who displays regular orgasm is signalling faithfulness to her mate and may give sense of reassurance to a man who arouses her. This, according to Wiederman (1997c) might explain the tendency for a woman to act out orgasm even when she is not aroused.[Mealey p 238]</font>

CIRCUMSTANCES AFFECT ACTUAL MATE CHOICE Buss, p. 126 The existence of evolved preferences in mating practices must affect actual choices made in mating, at least to some extent. However, while one may be able to visualize what they want in an ideal partner, it’s not always possible to mate with a partner that meets the criteria. This phenomenon occurs for several reasons, and the most obvious is that there’s only a finite number of potential mates that can be viewed as “highly desirable”, and this is further complicated in certain geographical areas where there’s a big disparity in male to female ratios. Furthermore, one’s own attractiveness plays a role in determining his or her mate, ie. usually only the most “attractive” people have access to the most attractive potential partners. Also, one’s family and friends can affect mating decisions, regardless of the preferences that an individual might have. </font>

Inherent in the idea of “best possible mate” is one’s self-perception. Where one thinks one falls in the overall ranking of mate value should influence what one considers to be “one’s best possible mate.” (assortative mating). This means that self-esteem and self-concept are important components of any mate-choice mechanisms.</font>

Arousing male sexual interest to initiate a relationship

Behavioral signals also attract partners. In general, called ’flirting’, there are some 52 actions that come into play when females determine to attract the desired male. These tactics and strategies, used by both sexes, (Greer & Buss, 1994) can include prolonging eye contact, buying someone a meal, using enhanced body odors, being pleasing, and conveying status. When in active pursuit of the male as many as 52 behavioral acts are reportedly used by both girls and women (Moore, 1985, 1995). They include facial and head patterns of licking lips and tossing hair; gestures of stroking objects; and postures of brushing or pressing against someone or walking about in a flamboyant manner. These cues work to successfully attract males. And can be displayed in two ways: either to attract a specific male, or in a general way, thus drawing males in groups, from which the male of choice can be more closely determined.

If a woman is interested in a long term relationship, she must manage this “complex and subtle projection of availability and interest, a woman must simultaneously screen the secured man for cues of status, interest, and stability” (Trost and Alberts, 2006, p. 325). A woman must also be able to “clearly but subtly reject undesirable suitors in the environment who might interfere with her ability to attract an appropriate mate, while still protecting the face of the unwanted suitor so as to avoid provoking a violent retaliation” (Trost and Alberts, 2006, p. 327). So, while flirting with a male, a woman must be able to accurately assess the male and then quickly decide whether or not he is a good potential mate. Also, she must be able to protect herself from unwanted attention by inadequate males. Ultimately, the results of this study came to four conclusions: (1) women were more skillful at encoding and decoding nonverbal behaviors, (2) they possessed a larger range of flirting behaviors to signal the men they wish to attract, (3) they possessed a larger collection of rejection strategies, and (4) women will be approached by men when they exhibit behaviors that are interpreted as flirtatious (Trost and Alberts, 2006).

The studies mentioned above have all provided support in their research that suggests that flirting is a survival instinct. Individuals who can read flirting signals are more likely to obtain a mate and reproduce. They are seen by their peers as being fit. Also, the whole flirting process can be used to assess mates. A woman may flirt with a man in order to get a quick summary of the male, his life, and how successful he has been. All of this information will tell the female whether or not the individual is worth the time and or effort. Also, further studies in this area may include research on males who fail to read flirting signals accurately. Males who fail to read these signals or read signals incorrectly can also find themselves in trouble. For example, some common cases of signals being read wrong have lead to cases of sexual harassment, especially in the work place. These men are failures because they do not get the female, plus they gain a damaged reputation. Ultimately, these men are seen as the weakest links and will have trouble finding mates. So, again, it is of the advantage of the individual to be able to accurately read nonverbal signals sent from the opposite sex. Being able to do so will result in the ability to find a mate, reproduce, and reach the ultimate goal of spreading one’s genes to other generations.

Flirting Behaviors

According to Longman (2000), flirting is defined as behaving in a particular way toward an individual to whom one is sexually attracted. There is much speculation about flirting and the way it is used for communication and or creating relationships. In class we discussed how women usually initiate interactions with the opposite sex. Usually, this is done through the use of eye contact, smiling, and through other non-verbal actions. The way an individual flirts through the use of their body language can tell prospective dates or mates that the individual is interested. This is because the way you act when flirting sends out messages. Understanding how to flirt and how to interpret someone else's flirting definitely helps with the selection process. When you know the signs to look for you can recognize how the opposite sex flirts; this will tell one right away if he or she should return the attention or whether it is better to not do so.

Recent research has suggested that women and men flirt differently and do so for a variety of reasons. One suggestion is that flirting is a basic instinct and is part of human nature. Also, research shows that flirting is a survival instinct that is designed to help with the procreation process; it is said that women may also flirt in order to assess a potential mate. Finally, it is said that males who can read these signals sent from women will benefit; they will be more likely to reproduce than males who are poor readers of signals. Also, it has been suggested that males who can read these signals will have better survival and reproductive outcomes; therefore, "better" genes and in turn, they will be better mates.

In a study by Moore (1985), nonverbal facial expressions and gestures that women displayed were examined; the behaviors they exhibited were labeled as “flirting behaviors.” Choosing a mate is one of the most important choices an organism can make. Moore suggested that women must have interactions with males in order to identify “superior mates;” this should be done prior to the onset of mating because it is advantageous for women to know which mate is the best so that she can make a satisfactory choice. Also, women must go through this process since errors in mate selection are more costly for females than males. Making the wrong choice in a mating partner can have a negative impact on the woman for a lifetime. Therefore, women are expected to evolve traits that would help them assess their male counterparts, especially in terms of inherited attributes and acquired resources. Other species also exhibit similar traits and behaviors, some of which include elephant seals, mice, fish, rats, gorillas, monkeys, and birds (Milius, 1998).

There is a huge range of gestures and facial expressions that are used by humans as courtship signals. Courtship and the choice of a mate have been characterized as largely nonverbal, with cues being extremely persuasive. Moore suggested that even a simple comment about the weather can be turned into a “seductive invitation.” Research has shown that the interaction between males and females usually begins with the females’ behaviors. In her research, Moore discovered that the female’s behavior is important in initiating conversation between strangers and this was true for both laboratory settings and single’s bars. In all cases, conversation was initiated only after the female glanced at the male. These signals are also known as courtship signals and include such behaviors as eye contact, touching, and the raising of eyebrows. “They serve as attractants and elicit the approach of males or ensure the continued attention of males” (p. 238).

Moore's (1985) observations were conducted with forty randomly selected female subjects in one of four contexts: a singles’ bar, university snack bar, university library, and at university Women’s Center meetings. The results indicated that “women in ‘male relevant’ contexts exhibited higher average frequencies of nonverbal displays directed at males… women who signaled often were also those who were most often approached by a man” (p. 237). Spearman rank correlations were used. “The correlation between number of male approaches and total number of solicitation, across all three contexts, equaled 0.89" (p. 390). The ultimate conclusion by Moore was that the research shows that women control interaction in the early phases of male to female interaction. Glancing plays a significant role. Since males are hesitant to approach females without some indication of interest from females, the repeated eye contact shows them that the females are indeed interested.

A similar article discusses how women assess men. According to Moore and Moore (1988), women use certain “rules when choosing among males that make only genetic contributions to their offspring” (p. 387). One way females do this is through “sampling and comparing” several males and then choosing the “best” male available. But, in order to do this, one must be able to attract the opposite sex; this is where flirting comes in. These women must be able to send signals in order to let males know they are interested. This is where the communication begins and may later lead to a relationship. Also, flirting can be one way females assess their mates or potential partners. In an article by Simao (2002), the courtship period can be used by individuals to swap for better partners when they become available. The researchers found that females use courtship as a way for holding partners until the mate may become a fully committed partner. Females must assess men because the choices they make can either lead to benefits or costs. In a study by Reynolds and Gross (1990), they argue that “females exhibit strong preferences for certain characteristics in their mates” (p. 230). Women are very picky in their mate choice because their ultimate choice will have a huge impact on them and their offspring. Women want men with certain characteristics because they believe males who obtain these characteristics will be the better providers, mates, and will have the best genes. The goal is to get the best mate for reproduction and survival.

A study by Trost and Alberts (2006) claimed that humans, unlike other animals, create bonds, usually life long bonds, with a partner; this is done in order to provide and support their offspring. Also, their study concluded that women and men do not have one universal mating strategy that they use. Results suggest that women are more concerned with finding a partner who will be committed to the relationship. Again, women will put men through a series of tests in order to assess the males and see if they are adequate partners. This can be done through dating which originally started from the initial interaction, which include males being able to read the female’s signals and then a flirting interaction. It can be argued that flirting is how most relationships begin. The way one approaches another or the way a woman invites a man to approach her can all be completed during these flirting “sessions.” Ultimately, these acts of flirting truly are what initiate a relationship. It usually beings with a look, a smile, or some other nonverbal cue, then can lead to a conversation, and ultimately a relationship.

Some of these female non-verbal and verbal movements may be an attempt to draw attention to the women’s feminine attributes. For example, Givens and Perper found that women began to flirt verbally through giggling or soft laughter. Seated women tend to place a palm on the table or knees, shrug their shoulders, and extend their necks to show harmlessness or vulnerability. Gestures, such as revealing the neck, show submissiveness (Rodgers, 2008). Could there be a correlation between necklaces and flirting? Possibly women wear jewelry to help draw attention to body parts they are using to signal messages. Swaying the hips draws attention to the pelvis, emphasizing the capacity for child bearing. This could be why women tend to wear tight clothing that show off their hips when trying to attract a partner. Softening the face, arching the brows, widening the eyes, and giggling, advertise youth and fertility. Drawing attention to the tongue and lips draws attention. Lastly by coyly advertising her gaze and playing hard to get, a female communicates her non-promiscuity.

As potential lovers continue to engage in flirting, they synchronize their body movements. Interaction synchrony, or human mirroring, begins in infancy (Fisher, 2006). This behavior is very apparent during flirting. Individuals will pivot or swivel their shoulders, align their bodies to face one another, rotate toward one another, or move in tandem (Fisher, 2006). It is possible that physically mirroring one another signals the potential for personality compatibility or the ability to work together in the future. It is very important that partners respect caution messages during flirtation. If the male or female is too aggressive at the beginning of the courting process such as coming too close, touching too soon, or talking too much, they might be repelled. With each ritual, the other person must understand the message being sent and respond appropriately, otherwise the communication breaks down and the courtship is at risk (Fisher, 2006).

Pheromones

The function of pheromones in mammals is an example of exaptation. These chemicals that were once thought to be waste or merely metabolic by-products, have evolved into a different functional purpose. They are now considered to serve as a communication tool. For example, the human sweat glands have a functional purpose to cool down the body. The eccrine glands secrete what is described as a diluted blood plasma (Jellinek, 1997). In addition to the eccrine glands are the apocrine glands. The apocrine glands have a function of producing something we can describe as a “nutritious chemical soup” (Mealy 2000). This chemical soup causes the growth of a certain bacteria, which, in turn, encourages the production of various odiferous chemicals. The apocrine glands, which are second sexual characteristics, become active during puberty as they are stimulated by androgens. They are located in the underarm area, the areola, and the genital area. There are differences in the smells produced among the different sexes.

Chemicals referred to as copulins, are vaginal secretions that produce various odors. These secretions may change throughout a female’s menstrual cycle. These chemicals are called copulins because of the similar secretions made by primates to attract males. Brooksbank and Cowly (1991) suggest that as these chemicals vary in mixture, they may suggest patterns of female fertility to males. However, this idea has not been proven.

Both females and males have used artificial scents, as in perfumes, to enhance their sexual appeal. Perfumes and colognes have a similar chemical profile to the natural chemicals secreted by humans, as well as by sex pheromones in different species (Jellinek, 1997).

Mealey, p. 222 Using different measures of sexuality, researchers have have found evidince of a mid-cycle peak in proceptivity. Hendrics (1994) found that women are more sexually arousable during ovualtion. During ovulation it is more common for females to initiate sex, masturbate more often, and have more erotic fantasies than their male partner.(Renita): And, consistent with the above findings, Gangestad and Thornhill (1998) discovered that sweaty smells of men (related to androtestosterone) are less offensive to her when a woman is ovulating. Thus she is psychologically in step with her sexual physiology.

Women also have a low period of sexual interest in erotica. This occurs during the mid-cycle according to a 1994 report (Zillmann, Schweitzer, & Mundorf). What this indicates is unclear. Several have attempted to put forth hypotheses: the presence of a separate psychological mechanism or another hormone; and Hrdy (1997) suggests that the sense of touch and smell only is affected at ovulation, but not vision.

Protecting one’s ’reputation’

One of the major costs that women run in engaging in short term mateships is a loss of status/tarnished reputation. Women who project a reputation for fidelity and chastity are generally more valued as mates. A woman who frequently engages in short term mateships that are less than secret decreases her reproductive value to her long-term partner. Even in more promiscuous cultures, women who have a lot of casual sex damage their reputations in their social world.

==== Emphasizing signals indicating nubility/health/beauty (if necessary, lie about reproductive value) ==== Two </font>general categories of tactics used by men and women to attract a mate have been found (Buss and Greer 1994). These two categories are "enhancing physical attractiveness" and "dressing seductively". Both lists were found to be used more by women than men. An example of these two categories can be experienced while viewing women’s magazines. There is a plethora of magazine ads and articles that are devoted to enhancing the beauty of women, including specific body features. Beauty salons, gyms, plastic surgeons, and spas target these particular body features. Buss (1989) suggests that physical attractiveness, though important to both sexes, is much more important to women than men.

Sexual signaling varies predictably in women throughout her menstrual cycle. Single women were reported to dress more provocative in skimpier clothing, during the peak time of fertility, ovulation (Grammar, 1993). This effect was not found in women who were taking oral contraceptives, whose, natural hormonal fluctuations were suppressed. Nor were these results found in partnered women.

Sneaky Strategy: Using cosmetics and/or cosmetic surgery

A man is as old as he’s feeling, a woman as old as she looks.

-- Mortimer Collins, 1827-1876

Topic: Women Using Cosmetic Surgery as a Sneaky Strategy Contributor: Ashley Allen Class: Psyc 310, Fall 2008      Attraction is often labeled as a force that brings two people together. Men and women throughout history have used their perceived levels of attraction, towards each other, in deciding whether or not they want to pursue a relationship or a sexual encounter with that person. While people can be attracted to each other for different reasons, physical attractiveness, which is correlated with one’s physical appearance, has been found to be the key component in the amount of interpersonal and romantic relationships that an individual can enter into. Numerous studies have been done on the topic of physical attractiveness and how people go through drastic measures by manipulating their physical appearances in order to be seen as beautiful and attractive in the eyes of others. David Sarwer, Ted Grossbart, and Elizabeth Didie (2005) quoted David Buss in their article titled Beauty and Society as stating that, "beauty may be in the eyes of the beholder, but those eyes and the minds behind the eyes have been shaped by millions of years of human evolution.”      The goal of all humans according to Charles Darwin, a lead researcher in the field of physical appearance, is to reproduce, and throughout the process of human evolution a person’s ability to reproduce was determined by their attractiveness. Darwin stated “that certain characteristics evolved because of reproductive advantage rather than survival advantage,” which the occurrence of people risking death through plastic surgery, in order to be more attractive and find a mate, can be a good example of (Sawyer, Magee, & Clark). Studies have shown that while women use a man’s financial standing as well as his appearance in determining whether or not they would want him as a mate, men rely solely on a woman’s physical appearance in order to gauge her level of attractiveness, a key determinant on whether or not they would date her. The large focus on women’s physical appearance is the main reason why women turn to cosmetic surgery in the hopes of being seen as attractive, thereby increasing their likelihood of finding a mate. While most women are not “sexually disenfranchised” the ability for women to find a high-status mate often results in an intrasexual competition. Cosmetic surgery can be used as an advantage when participating in this competition because after the procedure many women appear younger, healthier, and sexier in the eyes of men. Sawyer, Magee, & Clark (2003) said that although people usually characterize beauty through “descriptions of specific physical features – clear skin, bright eyes, lustrous hair” there are more subtle characteristics like “youthfulness, pathogen resistance, symmetry, body ratios, and averageness” which give women an advantage over the others.      Another common way that many men and women gauge a woman’s attractiveness is through the subconscious process of guessing her waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). The most frequent procedures done through cosmetic surgery are ones that involve the reduction of a woman’s WHR, such as liposuction, therefore making her appear more attractive. Devendra Singh and Patrick Randall (2007) completed a study which tested perceived levels of women’s attractiveness after undergoing cosmetic surgery which lowered their WHR and either increased or decreased their body mass index (BMI). Singh and Randall hypothesized that “if WHR, more than BMI, affects attractiveness, participants will judge post-operative photographs as more attractive regardless of any change in BMI.” Both Singh and Randall supported their hypothesis and found that women with a lower WHR were found to be more attractive regardless of their BMI. These same “attractive” women who had lower WHR were most likely labeled as more attractive because researchers like Singh and Randall (2007) have found that these women have fewer irregular menstrual cycles, have high predictors of pregnancy, are less susceptible to health problems, and also cope with stress better. With concealed signs of ovulation and fewer predictors of reproductive success in the human species, the emphasis put on a woman’s WHR may help males estimate her reproductive value, while also becoming more vulnerable to deception due to the advances in cosmetic surgery.      Steven Gangestad and Glenn Scheyd (2005) stated in their article “The Evolution of Human Physical Attractiveness’’ that while a “youthful facial appearance can be achieved through makeup, over a million cosmetic surgeries were performed in the United States alone in 1998.” This number is much higher of course today. Sawyer, Magee, & Clark (2003) found that “in 2001, [Americans] spent approximately $8 billion on surgeons’ fees for cosmetic medical treatments.” The majority of these cosmetic medical treatments were done on women, which altered the appearance of their noses, breasts, waists, and hips. A woman’s reproductive value or “expected residual reproductive success, generally based on age,” as stated before, can be manipulated by these cosmetic medical treatments, thereby not only giving her access to higher status mates but also helping her improve her “body image, quality of life, and reduce her amount of depressive symptoms” (Gangestad & Scheyd).      Beauty is very important not only in the American society but cross culturally as well. A Greek philosopher by the name of Sappho stated that “What is beautiful is good” (Sarwer, Grossbart, & Didie). Society as a whole rewards women who are attractive by giving them advantages in life such as, more frequent promotions and more assistance in times of need. These same attractive women are also rated as “more kind, interesting, sociable, and outgoing” in comparison to less attractive women (Sarwer, Grossbart, & Didie). Attractiveness has always been manipulated by women throughout time and the instance of women wearing corsets during the Victorian Era is a good example of this. Regardless of the pain it caused to wear them, women who wore these corsets were seen as more attractive and had higher reproductive values when their waists were perceived to be smaller than that of other women. Even studies on infants have shown that they stare at more “attractive” women over “unattractive” women for longer periods of time. The risks that go a long with having these cosmetic surgeries do not outweigh the benefits for most women. In order to gain the mate they are looking for and keep them around to provide for them and their children, these women who alter their appearances as a “sneaky strategy” are getting what they want in life and are happier because of it. References Gangestad, S.W., & Scheyd, G.J. (2005) The Evolution of Human Physical Attractiveness. Annual Review of Anthropology, 34(1), 523-548. http://0-proquest.umi.com.linus.lmu.edu:80/pqdweb?did=940138691&sid=1&Fmt=6&clientId=7693&RQT=309&VName=PQD Sarwer, D.B., Grossbart, T.A., & Didie, E.R. (2003). Beauty and Society. Seminars in Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery, 22(2), 79-92. http://0-www.sciencedirect.com.linus.lmu.edu/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B75K6-4K3KHCF-2-1&_cdi=13170&_user=945462&_orig=browse&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2003&_sk=999779997&view=c&wchp=dGLbVlW-zSkWA&md5=f0ae542ddadcdebb87c7f88056d0d76d&ie=/sdarticle.pdf Sarwer, D.B., Magee, L., & Clark, V. (2003). What is Beauty? Physical appearance and cosmetic medical treatments: physiological and socio-cultural influences. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 2(1), 29-39. http://0-web.ebscohost.com.linus.lmu.edu/ehost/pdf?vid=3&hid=105&sid=7046382f-29ba-4407-a087-f04a64da922b%40sessionmgr102 Singh, D., & Randall, P.K. (2007). Beauty is in the eye of the plastic surgeon: Waist–hip ratio (WHR) and women’s attractiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(2), 329–340. http://0-www.sciencedirect.com.linus.lmu.edu/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6V9F-4MY6MX6-1-7&_cdi=5897&_user=945462&_orig=browse&_coverDate=07%2F31%2F2007&_sk=999569997&view=c&wchp=dGLbVtb-zSkWA&md5=a9dfc791cf19499ffce198b57c7938df&ie=/sdarticle.pdf Relevant Websites Links http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_corsets http://www.californiasurgicalinstitute.com/blog/real-housewives-of-orange-county.html

 

Sneaky Strategy: Stealing or having an affair another woman’s husband / boyfriend

PROBLEM: FEMALE-FEMALE COMPETITION FOR MATES

Hooks and Green suggest that both male and female competition can be explained by the desire for reproductive success and survival. In order to do this, they look for ways to gain access to the resources that contribute to their survival and reproductive success, especially those resources that may give them an advantage over some or most of the population. In the case of female-female competition, human females may compete for resources by enhancing their physical fitness and appearance, or even by searching for sources that supply to the accumulation of resources, whether it be from her own success or from the success and wealth from another.

Females can compete with each other using an arsenal of weapons, such as beauty power, youth and reputation. Females who are vying for the same male’s attentions are likely to allege sexual promiscuity on the part of their rival. By damaging a rival’s reputation (labeling the rival as a "slut" or "whore"), she is in effect attempting to decrease her rival’s mate value.

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In this paper I will be discussing the various affects that a females ovulation cycle has on the behavior of other females around them, as well as on their own demeanor. It is important to focus on both of these aspects in order to gain a true understanding of the effects that the ovulation cycle has on a female. Unlike most other mammals, human females have concealed ovulation. In other words, the female is not explicitly aware of that fact that she is ovulating, and neither are those around her. Knowing beforehand that people’s behaviors are changed when they are around an ovulating female, or ovulating themselves, it shows that people are in fact subconsciously aware of when a female is ovulating.
            In a 2004 study conducted by Fisher and Cox, they investigated the interactions between ovulating females and non-ovulating females. This study found that the more fertile, or closer to ovulation, a female was, the more likely it would be for them to receive negative comments about their looks or appearance form other females. One category in particular that they discussed involved remarks about facial attractiveness. Many females seem to be predisposed to make rude or unflattering comments about how attractive another woman’s face was the closer that woman was to ovulating. One evolutionary perspective on this is that making comments like this would lower the other females mate value, making the first woman seem like a better candidate for mating. This is simply a way for females to increase their likelihood that the better more fit males will find them attractive and pursue them instead. 
It is important to consider the other side of this as well, is it simply other women changing the ovulating woman’s value? Or does the ovulating woman’s perspectives about herself change as well. While we have learned in class that women often have increased sexual desires the closer they get to ovulation, a woman’s self perception also changes. As women get closer and closer to ovulation, their self worth or self-esteem begins to increase. I see two possible evolutionary explanations for this. The first is that an increase in self-esteem would allow the female to portray herself in a way that makes her look available, and highly desirable. So she is not only biologically ready for a mate, she is also cognitively ready and willing to copulate with a male. Another interpretation of this would be that an increase in self-esteem would serve as a defense mechanism for the increase level of attacks by other females looking for a mate. In other words it would serve to shoot a females moral back up when it is constantly being bashed by other females around her.
             In conclusion, a female’s ovulation cycle has many far-reaching affects on those around her. Not only does it affect how she feels about herself, but also how both males and females act towards them. It is important to consider that all of these disruptions come about due to something that we cannot see or explicitly know. The affects that the ovulation cycle has on both males and females is one of the great examples of how our past evolutions come into direct play in our lives. The processes that made us who we are today are not gone, but simply difficult to see. It is important to look at and investigate these evolutionary traits in order to better understand the human race and how we operate.

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POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS:

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TOPIC: Height in Women

CONTRIBUTOR: Gina Coletto

Many studies have been done about the effects of male height and its associations. What is less known and researched is what the height of women is associated with. Recent studies have been done that tested women’s height in relationship to factors associated with evolutionary psychology and gender differences. In particular, factors such as jealousy, intrasexual competition (meaning competition with other females), and life history strategy. Other studies have been done that analyze the relationship between height and maternal tendencies and career orientation. Finally, height in women has also been studied in regards to the perceptions about women of a certain stature. Jealousy is an issue that often is associated with women, which makes sense in the scheme of things, since women have to secure paternal investment for their offspring. But does height have any correlation with the amount of jealousy in a woman? One recent study by Buunk et al. (2009) sought to determine this relationship. Jealousy was evaluated by participants using a reliable rating scale, In an overall evaluation of jealousy, height was found to have a significant curvilinear effect, meaning that women who had higher levels of jealousy were at the ends of the curve—the shortest and tallest women. The women of medium height were found to have the lowest level of jealousy in comparison.

Figure A: Curvilinear Relationship of Height to Jealousy

The same study also analyzed the relationship of intrasexual competition to height (Buunk et.al, 2009). Intrasexual competition is competition within the same sex, in this case, competition among females. A highly reliable, self-rated scale determined the level of intrasexual competition in participants of the study. Like jealousy, a curvilinear relationship was found in regards to intrasexual competition, with women of relatively shorter and taller heights being found to have higher intrasexual competition.

Figure B: Curvilinear Relationship of Height to Intrasexual Competition

Finally, the same study looked at the relationship of height to life history strategy, comparable to the idea of the r-K model of reproductive strategies.Those with K reproductive strategies devote more time to offspring care and have a slower reproductive pattern, as opposed to r-strategists, who reproduce quickly and frequently. In relation to life history strategy, individuals who have a fast life history strategy seek to produce many offspring with less investment in the survival of the offspring, meaning the mating effort is high, but the parental effort is low. This is comparable to r-strategists. Those with slow life history strategies seek to produce less offspring but with greater investment and parental care, as K-strategists do. Humans generally tend to follow the slow life history pattern, but with changing social conditions, there is variability. When the population size is stable and mortality rates are low, slower life history strategy is favored, whereas when things are more unstable, a faster strategy is favored. Participants in the study were given questionnaires to evaluate their life history strategy. As predicted, the relationship was curvilinear, with women of medium height being more in favor of a slower life history strategy, while women of shorter and taller stature favoring a faster strategy.

Figure C: The curvilinear relationship between height and a “slow” life history strategy.

Jealousy, intrasexual competition, and life history strategy were all found to be related, finding that women of medium height show less jealousy, less intrasexual competition, and a slower life history strategy. One explanation of this could be that medium height women receive more interest from men, and therefore they feel more secure about their reproductive opportunities, and therefore may choose a slower life history strategy with less competitiveness and jealousy. Another study sought to determine if a woman’s height has an influence on if she is maternal or career-oriented (Deady & Smith, 2006). Height was found to be related to maternal tendencies and traits, reproductive desire, and career orientation in those women who were pre-reproductive, that is, they have not yet reproduced. Consistently, taller women were found to be less maternal and more career-oriented. In post-reproductive women, taller women were found to have had fewer children and they had their first child later than the other women. Further research is necessary to determine the reasons, but this could potentially be due to the fact that taller women may have more testosterone, or may have been exposed to more testosterone prenatally, and therefore have less maternal desires. Along with these factors, height may also influence how a woman is perceived. A study was conducted to determine what characteristics people associate with women of short and tall stature (Chu & Geary, 2005). Two pictures were shown to participants of women, one picture was a tall woman standing next to a car, while the other was a short woman standing next to a car. The car was used for comparison, and the images were blurred to appear slightly out of focus, so fine details of the women or the image could not sway results. Participants were asked questions that reflected six character traits, which were assertive, independent, ambitious, considerate, nurturing, and homely; they were also asked to evaluate the women’s intelligence and affluence. In characteristics that indicated success, taller women were rated more favorably by both male and female raters, including intelligence and affluence. In regards to expressive traits such as considerate, nurturing, and homely, only male raters perceived shorter women to be more expressive than taller women. Female raters did not perceive any difference between the two pictures. This may be because members of a group are less likely to hold stereotypes of their own group.

The current research regarding the height of women and its associations is fascinating, and it can be tied back to evolutionary psychology. Women of medium stature were found to be less jealous, less intrasexually competitive, and more often followed a slower life history strategy than short and tall women. These results may be due to men finding women of medium height more favorable, which can be explained by many possible reasons, one potentially being that women of medium height are perceived to be more genetically favorable, since they are more "average" than those of extreme heights. Tall women have also been found to be more career-oriented and less maternal than shorter women, this potentially being caused by an increase in testosterone. Finally, a woman's height affects how she is perceived by men in society, with males often assuming shorter women are more expressive, while thinking taller women are more intelligent and affluent.

Reference List
Buunk, A., Pullet, T., Klavina, L., Figueredo, A. J., & Dijkstra, P. (2009). Height among Women is Curvilinearly Related to Life History Strategy. Evolutionary Psychology, 7(4), 545-549
Chu, S., & Geary, K. (2005). Physical stature influences character perception in women. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 1927-1934.
Deady, D., & Smith, M. L. (2006). Height in women predicts maternal tendencies and career orientation . Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 17-25.

Web Links to Articles
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V9F-4GV8SVS-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1112835226&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=85ecafa0e418f24af2d39c3fdfe6179a
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V9F-4F9MT9C-5&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1112837308&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=e9506e5169f34f1ff9267e3cb5df2474
http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/EP075455592.pdf

Additional Resources
http://www.glamour.com/health-fitness/blogs/vitamin-g/2009/09/how-tall-are-you-heres-what-re.html
http://www.glamour.com/beauty/blogs/girls-in-the-beauty-department/2009/08/do-you-find-taller-men-more-at.html
http://www.tallwomen.org/

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Female-female aggression

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Melissa Munoz

Fall 2009

Female intrasexual competition

Competition in general does not seem to be an outlet that females are usually interested in. Even in a mixed setting of males and females, females are still unlikely to engage in competition, regardless of their abilities in the presented challenge. In terms of competition with men, females do not really show an interest in participation; this suggests that females have different attitudes toward competition and also that if females feel uncomfortable in a certain competitive setting they will take the initiative to avoid it (Niederle & Vesterlund 2008). The lower levels of competiton by females may also be due to the risks involved, such as serious injury or death; males have less to risk than females from acts of aggression. Males have to engage in competition for access to females, therefore their level of violence is significantly higher. Females’ reproductive success is revolves around securing good partners, resources, and then converting them into healthy offspring.

Campbell (1995) identifies three key factors that trigger female intrasexual competition: management of sexual reputation, competition over access to resource-rich young men, and protecting heterosexual relationships from take over by rival women. It is believed that intrasexual compeition amongst females is a result of evolved psychology due to the selection pressures present in the Pleistocene society and present social and life course conditions initiate the same psychological mechanisms (Campbell 1995).

Females’ rate of involvement in violent crimes is significantly lower than that of males, however an interesting finding is that both males and females share a similar age-violence curve for assault; the most crimes occur during adolescence and young adulthood. From the perspective of females, this may be a product of aggressive mate selection, which indicates that under certain conditions women will engage in intrasexual competition (Campbell 1995).

During the period of time closely surrounding their reproductive peak, females will be more likely to avert to intrasexual competition. Sex ratio also plays an important role in the occurrence of female-female competition. In a population where women outnumber men, competition for long-term mates will be more aggressive. Also, self-perception is another key factor; females who view themselves as less attractive will be more likely to engage in risky or aggressive competitive behavior compared to females who feel they are very attractive. Females are usually prone to “low-key antagonisms” as opposed to extremely violent ones. These low-key antagonisms can be accounted for on the basis of females’ lesser fitness variance, certainty of maternity and large investment in offspring. Violent tactics would risk injury or death and are therefore too costly for females; instead, non-lethal strategies are adopted (Campbell 1995). On a basic level, most of female competition has to do with self-presentation; human females will compete with each other in the realm of beauty and reproductive attractiveness (since that is what males look for). In terms of other competition, females are less likely to use physical weapons; indirect forms of physical and verbal aggression are adapted instead. These include gossiping, exclusion, and spreading rumors, for example. The aim of these strategies is to not only discredit other rival females but also to produce stress (which will suppress ovulation) (Campbell 1995; Rucas et al. 2006).

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Campbell, A. (1995). A Few Good Men: Evolutionary Psychology and Female Adolescent Aggresion. Ethology and Sociobiology, 16, 99-123.

Niederle, M., & Vesterlund, L. (2008). Gender Differences in Competition. Negottiation Journal, 24(4), 447-463.

Rucas, S.L., Gurven, M., Kaplan, H., Winking, J., Gangestad, S., & Crespo, M. (2006). Female intrasexual competition and reputational effects on attractiveness among the Tsimane of Bolivia. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27, 40-52.

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Tanisha Tatum Aggressive Behavior in Women We often tend to think of men and their muscles punching and beating up one another when the word aggression is thrown around. Aggression evolved as a solution to an adaptive problem and can be defined as inflicting costs on someone else, and with this definition it is not limited to men. Women can be just as aggressive as men if not more, but in a different way. Women often exceed men in derogating their rivals on the basis of physical appearance and sexual promiscuity. (Buss & Dedden, 1990). There have been many theories as to why men are so physically aggressive, but not nearly as many on why women use verbal abuse at much higher rates then men. Speaking in evolutionary terms, it must have been more beneficial for women to be less physically violent and instead use verbal abuse. The concept of indirect aggression is one that is applied to the aggressive behaviors of women because of their tendencies to use verbal abuse over physical abuse. The evolutionary model of intrasexual competition and sexual selection has been used to provide foundation for physical male aggression. Males invest much less in their children then females do and are prone to be much more polygamous. Male competition for mates can get riskier and more competitive with time which can led to violence and aggression. For each man that has more then one women, another is left lonely and unable to reproduce (Daly & Wilson 1996b). For women, the situation is flipped. Women’s parental investment is exceptionally high in comparison to men so it would follow that they would need to protect their own lives by any means necessary to enhance their reproductive success. This would make the cost for direct physical aggression higher for females then it is for males. In a recent study done by Campbell & Muncer (2008) they examine gender differences in aggressive behavior, expressing that women may express anger through behaviors that lack intent to harm or injure (Campbell & Muncer 2008). The study involved two categories: Explosive Acts ( e.g. throwing objects when alone) vs. defusing acts (talking to a third party). Defusing acts also include retreating from the scene to calm down, discussing the incident with someone else, the silent treatment and crying. These acts are not forms of aggression but they do point in the same direction of Campbell’s and others previous studies. Her results showed that women exceeded men on defusing acts and men exceeded women on direct aggression. (Campbell & Muncer 2008). Both of Campbell’s studies demonstrate that physical violence or aggression in women is very rare in comparison to men. There have been numerous studies to show that females really do use verbal attacks as a form of aggression in much larger numbers then men. In one study done by Ahmad & Smith (1994), researchers looked at 226 middle school and 1207 high school students. They used an anonymous questionnaire and asked how often each student had been bullied, how often they bullied others and the particular forms of bullying that took place. The results followed those of Campbell’s where in the high school sample, only 9 percent of girls reported being physically hurt compared to almost 40 percent of boys. What was even more interesting is that 74 percent of the girls reported that others called them nasty names. It is also important to note that the kind of bullying that involved spreading rumors and calling girls nasty names such as “whore” and “slut” was much more significant in high school then in middle school, high school being the time when mate competition and selection becomes very important. (Ahmad & smith, 1994). We know aggression evolved to solve an adaptive problem, and that some form of aggression was necessary for women. The indirect form that evolved became verbal, but what is amazing is the kind of verbal abuse. In regards to aggression women have evolved in ways that they know exactly how to successfully be verbally aggressive, all of which inflict costs to their intrasexual rivals (Buss & Dedden, 1990). Women put down other women as often as men do when it comes to competition for mates it is just in a different way. Indirect aggression for women almost always target the rivals physical appearance and/or sexual promiscuity. In a study done by Buss & Dedden, 1990 women were more likely than men to call their competitors fat and ugly, make fun of their size and shape and to say that their rival slept around a lot. In women to women competition, if you are seen as a threat or rival, your physical appearance will almost always get talked about. The differences in intrasexual competition in men in women have put men and women on two separate paths in regard to aggression. Female competition centers much more on appearance, fidelity and sexual access, all of which have to do with protecting their reproductive value (Buss and Dedden 1990). In our day in age, it would follow that women who are better at showing this indirect aggression, and who successfully avoid physical abuse will probably have a better chance at securing a mate then their counterparts. It would be very interesting to see if females who are much sharper in their wit and in their insults towards other women actually do have greater reproductive success. Ahmad, Y., & Smith, P.K. (1994). Bullying in schools and the issue of sex differences. In John Archer (Ed.), Male Violence. London: Routledge. Campbell, A. (1999, April). Staying alive: Evolution, culture, and women's intrasexual aggression. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(2), 203-252. Campbell, A., & Muncer, S. (2008, May). Intent to harm or injure? Gender and the expression of anger. Aggressive Behavior, 34(3), 282-293. Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1996b). Evolutionary psychology and marital conflict: The relevance of stepchildren. In D. M. Buss & N. Malamuth (Eds.), Sex, Power, conflict: Evolutionary and feminist perspectives (pp 9-28). New York: Oxford University Press. David M. Buss & Dedden, Lissa A. (1990). Derogation of Competitors.Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 7, 395-422.

Verbal derogation of rivals

Among </font>mature women physical fighting over males is unusual. However, when it does occur, it is typically over resources or sexual access to one man. This arises in polygynous cultures and in cases of unfaithfulness. When physical fighting occurs, it is often among adolescents in retaliation against a verbal insult directed at a girl’s sexual exclusivity or lack thereof. She may be protecting her sexual reputation against name-calling such as "slut" or "whore."

At this age a girl’s reproductive energies are her most valuable commodity. If she is seen as indiscriminate, or if she appears to be capable of infidelity, her value as exclusive to the most desirable, attractive males decreases. Thus her physical violence is typically viewed as self-defense.

Other, more subtle and less direct attempts as rumors and backstabbing to damage the image of the competitor is typical of both sexes, but more commonly and skillfully used among females (Buss and Dedden, 1990). These strategies are designed to upset the competitor’s position on the social scale (Fry, 1998).

Many people assume that aggressive competition for mates occurs only among men. Although same-sex homicide is far more common among men it does occur between women as well. When aggression occurs between females it is usually for the attention of a male (Cashdan, 1998). Females are attracted to tall, mature, healthy, physically symmetrical men with good genes that can be passed on to their children and they want to secure men with high status and resources (Cashdan, 1998). Females prefer mates with extreme characteristics such as bright colors elaborate ornaments, and conspicuous songs (Gavrilets, Arnqvist, and Friberg, 2000) because these features are condition-dependent and require a high level of genetic fitness to carry out. They value resources in a mate because it will aid fitness to re-direct the resources in toward themselves and their offspring (Hill, Donovan, & Koyama, 2005). Because women can make predictions about the potential benefits of a particular mate, such as having healthy children, resources, and protection, women will go to great lengths to obtain a desirable mate.

Sometimes women compete indirectly and sometimes they engage in active aggression towards each other. Cashdan (1998) explains that competitive aggression between females is worth the risk under three conditions: when females choose their own mates, when there is a shortage of men, and when variability among the quality of men is high. Fisher (2004) also clarifies that women are willing to compete for mates when men very in their ability to provide limited resources, and when the benefits outweigh the costs. Further Cashdan (1998) explains that a cause of female-female aggression in communities with low male parental investment may not necessarily be due to a shortage of desirable men; rather, it may be due to sexually promiscuous competitors.

A common cause of female-female aggression is an accusation of promiscuity or infidelity. In one study, 73% of female school girls sampled had been involved in a fight with another female, and the most frequent cause of the fight was to defend a girl’s reputation and integrity. Cashdan (1998) explains that females get into fights about preserving their reputation because females that want to secure long-term mates need to demonstrate fidelity because paternity assurance is a significant problem for men. The importance of paternity assurance is demonstrated among the women on the Venezuelan Island of Margarita, who frequently engage in female-female fighting to secure paternity assurance by preserving their reputations. American college women attack each other’s reputations as a form of female competition. American women do this because they can get ahead by sabotaging another woman’s reputation (Cashdan, 1998).

Males value physical attractiveness and indicators of youth and high reproductive value, along with beauty, health, chastity, and wealth (Cashdan, 1998). They also find enlarged breasts, buttocks, and hips accompanied by a slender waist attractive and good indicators of female quality (Hill et al., 2005). Females can compete by sabotaging a competitor’s reputation or by giving men more of what they want. Women indirectly compete for mates by accentuating or even faking these desired features. Women wear make-up to appear more youthful and they wear certain types of clothing to manipulate their bodies and present a low wait-hip ratio, which indicates high fertility and is associated with good health (Cashdan, 1998).

Since females are aware of the fact that men are attracted to certain parts of their body, such as their breasts and buttocks, they wear more revealing clothing that accentuates their feminine figure during times when economic prospects are unpromising. In a study female models’ dress lengths over a period of 50 years were analyzed and a significant correlation between the length of their dresses and stock prices was found; as stock prices rose, dress lengths became shorter. Short skirts were also associated with low sex ratios which demonstrated limited marital opportunities, increased employment opportunities for women, and marital instability (Hill et al., 2005).

Hill et al. (2005) discovered that females actively seek out mates during times of economic hardship by skillfully choosing clothing that will reveal their body in certain ways and accentuate fertility. When there are fewer “high-quality” mates available, upper body display is the prominent region that receives skin exposure. They suggest that breasts are exposed for two reasons. Firstly large breasts indicate that the female has been through puberty and has reproductive capacity and secondly because breast symmetry correlates with fertility. During poor economic conditions clothing is tightest around the waist and hips to accentuate the waist-to hip ratio.

When women are competing they will often criticize and put down their competitor. Fisher (2004) hypothesized that this phenomenon would be especially pronounced during levels of high estrogen in females, since this is when fertility is highest and thus competition is most important. This is precisely what she found. Male and female participants were asked to rate attractiveness of pictures of male as and female faces, and females were divided into a high and low estrogen group depending on what phase of their ovulatory cycle they were in. Females with high levels of estrogen rated other female faces as significantly less attractive than did females with low estrogen levels; however, there was no significant difference for male faces. Thus, it appears that womenbecome more competitive and are stricter on in their ratings of attractiveness when it is most important and can yield the best results. At times when their reproductive capacity is highest, they are more likely to compete with other women by devaluing what men find important: beauty.

Another form of female intra-sexual competition is by giving the males an economic investment, such as a dowry. There is high competition among females when males differ widely in quality of resources. In monogamous societies with a large variance among males with resources, dowries are most common, and play a role as an incentive to secure a desirable mate (Cashdan, 1998).

Evidence of direct aggression between females was more frequent among female antelope and bonobo. Bro-Jorgensen (2002) found that among topi antelopes there was active female mate choice. Females preferred to mate with larger males in the center. There was clear evidence of aggressive competition among females for mating opportunities with preferred males. In the lek center, females were more likely to actively disrupt others’ matings and interfere with copulations. Females were also more likely to mate when other estrous females were present on their territory. In another study Vervaecke and Van Elsacker (2000) observed a group of captive bonobos. Among their observations were instances of clear intra-sexual female competition. Bonobos manifested their competition by actually pulling the female off of the male during a sexual interaction and chasing them, being aggressive with them, and throwing temper tantrums.

There is clear evidence that females compete amongst each other for access to desirable males. This is especially evident during times of economic hardship and when high status males are rare. Females can mate indirectly by sabotaging another female or making themselves seem more desirable or by directly demonstrating aggression towards another female.

Aggression

The idea of intrasexual selection often stems from the female motivation to secure parental investment and encouraging monogamy (Trivers, 1972). An illustrative example of this phenomenon comes from animal research, such as a study on European starlings that showed that, “female (birds) that remained monogamous despite the male's opportunity to attract a secondary female reacted more strongly towards a potential female settler, and the proportion of time females spent near the cage was also associated with song and physical attacks by the females.” (Catchpole & Slater 1995; Eens, 1997 as cited in Sandell, 1998, p. 1310). Furthermore, “Schuster (1983, 1985) using data from China and Zambia also conclude that adult female aggression is principally driven by competition over scarce resources and often this includes men” (as cited in Campbell, 1995, p. 116). Although not very commonly studied, females engage in intrasexual selection when cost benefits are evaluated and the effort toward competition “is worth the risk”. For example, females develop faster than males and thus reach a “reproductive value” at an earlier age. Campbell (1995) argues that these early reproductive years are likely to be associated with increased competition among females, citing primate evidence to support the claim. Female primates seem to experience elevated aggression and dominance in association with this critical period.

Appearance

Another common method females employ is emphasizing appearance and possibly changing appearance to attract a mate. In past research and evolution it has been concluded that men often use appearance as a judgment of fertility (Fisher, 2004). For example in a study by Buss (1988), a list of the top 20 most effective female acts was compiled; 40% of the females acts listed concerned appearance (clothing, grooming etc.).

Female Ornamentation

Amudsen (2000) argues that although female ornamentation is often explored as a result of “genetic correlation” and not necessarily sexual selection, he contrastingly argues that sexual ornamentation evolves from direct selection (selection (sexual or natural) directly favoring conspicuous female traits) (p. 151). For instance, Box 3 from Amudsen (2000) shows the result of female ornamentation evolution as evidence for female intrasexual selection. In comparison to males, females demonstrate a change in their ornamentation as a result of sexual selection.

Why is female-female competition worth it? On top of competing for resources, female-female competition is beneficial to females when reproduction is involved. Rosvall (2007) studied aggressive behavior in female tree swallows. The results demonstrated that, just as males respond to territory protection, females displayed acts of aggression in attending to their reproductive needs. In addition, other favorable factors benefiting intrasexual selection include: 1. sex ratio, 2. proportion of resource-rich mates, 3. men who commit, 4. absent fathers, and 5. individual differences. Evidently both males and females fight to increase their reproductive success as well as to secure quality genes to be passed down to their offspring.

FEMALE PROBLEM: DIVERTING MALE PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL AGGRESSION

POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS:

Reducing aggressive signals / displaying receptivity and/or vulnerability

Female choice has literally shaped males to be more aggressive, competitive, larger and stronger than females. While these qualities certainly enhance fitness, they also come with a cost. Aggressive, strong males have a physical advantage, and in a fury they can seriously injure physically smaller females and their children.

Female coalitions

[From Mealey p 242] Women do not want pregnancies from partners they have not chosen. They may band in groups. Women have developed a nonconscious defense against conception as a result of rape (Chavanne & Gallup, 1998). Women are frequently aware of the potential risk of becoming a victim of male sexual violence. To protect and support themselves, women have banded together in many instances to decrease the exposure to this risk. These alliances can consist of small group activities, such as walking in pairs or groups, or large feminist organized activities, such as education and counseling. From a game theory perspective (looking at the payoffs of different strategies), the strategies described here could be viewed as a defensive "move" to block other "players" (i.e., male sexual predators) (Mealy, 1999).

Using male kin, friends or mate as a "bodyguard"

Possible anti-rape adaptations

One study illuminates an evolved mental mechanism women may use to avoid unwanted pregnancies resulting from rape (Chavanne & Gallup, 1998). It was found that women who were ovulating, and not using birth control pills, were more likely to avoid situations that increased the risk of rape. Women who were using birth control pills did not significantly alter their rape-avoidant behavior.

Only women who are not taking oral contraceptives, at the time of ovulation, show significantly fewer behaviors that are rated as exposing them to rape. </font>

Possible Anti-Rape Adaptations Kayla Brown Psyc 452 Spring 2009 Throughout recorded history rape has taken place across cultures (McKibbin, Shackelford, Goetz &amp; Staratt, 2008). Since rape is costly for the female reproductively, physically and psychologically and rape has occurred throughout evolution possible rape adaptations have evolved to protect females from rape. Rape has many consequences for females: (1) the are unable to exercise mate choice, (2) they will not obtain provision and protection from the father if a child is conceived from the rape, (3) the current mate may leave the female or punish her in some way, (4) the attraction of the female is decreased possibly resulting in a decreased likelihood of obtaining another mate (Petralia &amp; Gallup, 2002). <br> The female feral fowl, Gallus gallus domesticus, is a type of bird that has evolved the ability to eject sperm after copulation. The adaptation of ejecting unwanted sperm was observed and recorded in a study by Pizzari and Birkhead (2000). They looked at the copulation behaviors of these birds, in particular the response of the female birds to undesired sperm that had been ejaculated into them during copulation. This type of bird has a cloaca, which is an organ that is turned out for copulation and is able to secrete fluid. When the female fowl is mounted she raises her tail and everts her cloaca and semen is ejaculated into her cloaca during copulation. Immediately after insemination, the female fowl chooses whether or not to eject the unwanted semen and the male is unable to detect his sperm being ejected by the female. Although the female fowl often ejects the sperm she is less discriminate when the semen is a product of the dominant male and it was found that the female fowl was more likely to eject the sperm of low-ranking partners. Another anti-rape adaptation that this species of bird also displays is the distress call they make when mounted by low-ranking partners. This call often leads to a dominant male interrupting the copulation in turn decreasing the success of fertilization by the low-ranking bird.<br> A study by Chavanne and Gallup (1998) revealed that women engage in less risk taking behaviors when they are in the most fertile stage of their menstrual cycle, their ovulatory phase. They surveyed 247 undergraduate students and had them mark the behaviors they had engaged in within the past twenty-four hours. They also asked the participants to report when their last menstrual cycle was and took a urine sample to verify what was reported. Risk-taking behaviors included: going to a bar, walking in a dimly lit area, going on a date and low-risk behaviors included: staying home, watching television, going to church. Chavanne and Gallup (1998) found that those on birth control pills, which would decrease chances of pregnancy if raped, reported no significant difference in risk taking behaviors throughout their menstrual cycle. Although those not taking birth control pills, risk taking activities declined significantly during their ovulatory phase. This study highlights that there are behaviors that women unknowingly avoid based on their susceptibility to pregnancy based on their menstrual cycle phase. Since the women who were on birth control pills did not illustrate differences in engaging in risk-taking behaviors reinforces that these behaviors occur to reduce chances of pregnancy through rape for those who are susceptible.<br> Another study by Petralia and Gallup (2002) tested the variations of handgrip strength women have throughout their menstrual cycle. This was tested by having 232 female college students give a pretreatment handgrip strength score then read a neutral or sexual assault passage and then give a posttreatment handgrip strength score. Petralia and Gallup (2002) found that those in their ovulatory phase who had read the sexual assault passage had a significantly increased posttreatment handgrip strength score. As the study by Chavanne and Gallup (1998) illustrates the menstrual phase a female is in affects her behaviors and she unknowingly engages in less risk-taking behaviors, Petrali and Gallup (2002) show that the menstrual phase also affects the strength of a womans handgrip during a peak fertility phase. By avoiding risky situations the women decreases her chances of being raped and by the handgrip strength increasing during ovulation the woman is better able to fend off a rapist. Both of these behaviors decrease the risk of a conception from possible rape and illustrate possible anti-rape adaptations that females unwittingly engage in.<br> Lastly, another study by Garver-Apgar, Gangstead, and Thornhill (2007) as cited by Thornhill and Gangestead (2008) had women rate men on videotape as if they were a potential lunch date. The women in estrus, a high fertility phase, rated the men as more sexually coercive than those women who were not in estrus. This led to researchers concluding that may women try to minimize false negative errors in judging the character of men by women avoiding making a judgment that may compromise their safety and in turn increasing their risk of rape. Levay and Valente (2006) also discuss vaginismus, which is a condition in which the vaginal walls involuntarily spasm and penetration becomes impossible. Many researchers believe that vaginismus may be a result of earlier traumatic experiences such as experiencing or witnessing a sexual assault. Based on the preceding research this may also be a sign of another anti-rape adaptation.<br> By human females avoiding risky situations and increase in handgrip strength during ovulation as well as judging the character of men more harshly they are unknowingly protecting themselves from rape during their most fertile time of the month. Since rape has occurred throughout history it is very possible that these anti-rape adaptations evolved in women to protect them against rape and the incredible costs that come with rape physically, psychologically and reproductively. Chavanne, T.J., Gallup, G.G. (1998). Variation in risk taking behavior among female college students as a function of the menstrual cycle. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 27-32.<br>McKibbin, W.F., Shackelford, T.K., Goetz, A.T., &amp; Staratt, V.G. (2008). Why do men rape? An evolutionary psychological perspective. Review of General Psychology, 12, 86-97.<br>Petralia, S.M., &amp; Gallup, G.G. (2002). Effects of sexual assault scenario on handgrip strength across the menstrual cycle. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 3-10.<br>Pizarri, T. &amp; Birkhead, T.R. (2000). Female feral fowl eject sperm of subdominant males. Nature, 405, 787-789.<br>LeVay, S., &amp; Valente, S.M. (2006). Sexual attraction and arousal. In G. Donini (Ed.) Human Sexuality (pp. 221-222). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc.<br>Thornhill, R. &amp; Gangestead, S.W. (2008). The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality (pp. 317-318). United States: Oxford University Press, Inc. <br>Today technology has provided devices women can use to protect themselves against rape.<br><br>

Enforcing penalties for sexual harassment and rape

After </font>a rape, it is likely that ancestral women relied on male relatives--brothers, fathers, other relations -- or to friends-- to exact revenge against the aggressor. Kin relations share genes with her and thus are indirectly affected by the likely reduction of her reproductive success.

FEMALE PROBLEM: GETTING A PREFERRED MALE TO COMMIT TO A LONG TERM RELATIONSHIP

POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS:

FEMALE PROBLEM: GETTING A MALE(S) TO INVEST IN HER OFFSPRING

Despite the difference in paternal investment between the sexes, human males spend more time investing in their offspring than other male mammals. This is due to the extended childhood period in human beings that requires additional parental care (Bjorklund & Shackelford, 1999).

A good male mate would not only provide good genes to a female’s offspring but he would also invest his time and resources in her offspring. Of course, a male must be careful in deciding whether or not to invest in a female in her children due to the fact that he cannot be certain of his paternity to the children.

To help induce male investment in offspring, females may make particular efforts to demonstrate loyalty and sexual fidelity to her male mate (Bjorklund & Shackelford, 1999; Buss, Larsen, Westen, & Semmelroth, 1992).

POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS:

Finding resource-rich males attractive

Compared to males, females tend to invest more in reproductive effort versus mating effort. Indeed, women bear the burden of a nine-month gestation period, lactation and many years of socialization, provisioning and protection of their offspring. They would benefit by being attracted to a male that possessed resources valuable to her and her offspring. Indeed, this appears to be the case.

In a study done in the U.S. in 1939, women indicated that they weighted the value of "good financial prospects" in a mate approximately twice as much as the men did. This result was repeated in studies done in 1956 and in 1967 (Hill, 1945; Hudson & Henze, 1969; McGinnis, 1958). Buss repeated the survey in 1989 using the same questionnaire. Women sampled from all the different countries, racial backgrounds, religions, political affiliations, and different systems of mating, valued financial resources approximately twice as much as men did (Buss, Abbott, Angleitner, et al., 1990). Context </font>is very important in determining what a woman desires from a relationship. It may be helpful to think of women’s’ adaptations for mating as organized into strategies—the activation of which gives rise to particular behaviors and desires. These mechanisms require information about the woman’s condition, prospects, and environment. The specific types of strategies should help solve problems women encountered frequently in ancestral conditions.

Finding potentially ’good father’ behavior attractive

[Mealey p 236] Hirsch and Paul (1996) found evidence that women are attracted to men who demonstrate fondness for children and sensitivity toward others. Buss (1989a) and Ellis (1999) demonstrated that women value qualities of kindness, honesty and affection in men. Caring, Baxter and Wilmot (1984) concluded that a willingness to be inconvenienced were qualities females tended to value in a potential mate.

Enforcing a long courtship before copulation

Keeping mate from straying

By Isaiah Magpali-Isaac
Evolutionary Psychology, 452 Fall 2008

 (Boyfriend sharing a drink with a friend.) http:// fruitfly.files.wordpress.com/2007/07/ jealous.jpg

Keeping a mate from straying may not be on the conscious mind of every person who is in a relationship, but that does not mean that something in our evolutionary past has not developed to help us keep a mate focused. Humans seem to have something in common with monogamous birds and other animals; monogamy. Research on keeping a mate from straying is somewhat limited when it comes to humans, but using research done on monogamous birds and other creatures, as well the slim research there is for humans we can come to some insight about females keeping their mates from straying.

There is one possible reason for females to keep a mate from straying. As discussed earlier, women want someone with a high earning capacity and ambition (section: Female Evolutionary Guidelines to Choosing a Long-Term Mate). Now that a woman has a mate that has potential, one would believe they would want to keep that mate. The ability to keep a mate from straying increases access to goods that ultimately increase chance of survival and reproductive success.

One way to look at the idea of keeping a mate from straying is how a person guards their mate or mate guarding. This term is used both in avian research and human research and commentaries on the subject of keeping a mate from straying (Lazarus et. al., 2004; Buss, 2000). Mate guarding refers to the process of safeguarding access to a mate as well as preventing other persons from infringing on a significant other (Thomson et. al., 2007). Thomson et. al. (2007) go on to say, “this practice, [mate guarding], has been observed in a variety of species, especially where parental investment by both parents is likely or common. Several evolutionary scientists have theorized that jealousy has evolved as a mate guarding tactic to help ensure that one’s partner does not abandon the partnership, either temporarily (e.g., infidelity) or permanently (e.g., divorce). Examples of mate guarding include a broad range of behaviors including making oneself more attractive for one’s partner to physically harmful acts such as domestic violence”. Measures of female mate guarding have focused on female solicitation and copulation, but can also look at maintenance of close proximity to a mate (Creighton, 2000).

Much of the description of mate guarding above is usually applied to what males are at risk to lose if they do not keep a mate from straying. Male risks differ from female risks of failure to mate guard and from an evolutionary perspective male mate guarding failure is more detrimental. Males who fail to mate guard risk cuckoldry and giving recourses to those children who are not their own (Buss, 2002). A male is also at risk of other detrimental outcomes. Such outcomes include lose of his mate and all of her potential reproductive value, as well as the loss of time a male could have focused on other potential mates (Buss, 2002). With all this males face a lot if they fail at mate guarding.

But that is not to say that females are not at risk; females are put at a risk if they do not participate in mate guarding or keeping their mate from straying. If a female does not mate guard, she risks the loss of her mate investment (e.g. financial diversion and other resources to other sexual and non-sexual partners) and alliances brought together by partners may be lost (e.g. family and friends; Thomson et. al., 2007). Women may also lose something else if they fail to mate guard. They are at risk if their mate does end up leaving them of being perceived as less desirable or being seen as someone with a defect (Buss, 2002). Men and women also share some risks.

Both men and women who fail to mate guard also face other risks. Some of those risks include but are not limited to what follows. Men and women who fail are at a higher risk of contracting an S.T.I. or sexually transmitted disease (Buss, 2002). This comes as no surprise because increased exposure to other sexual partners brings an increase to the pool from which one can contract a disease or infection. Other research not on humans but on bird may bring about some interesting conclusions.

In research by E. Creighton on European blackbirds, she found that female blackbirds did not participate in mate guarding when it came to keeping their partners from involving themselves in extra-pair copulation (2000). The bird she is referring to are monogamous and as the title of her paper says there is no evidence in female mate guarding in socially monogamous species. E. Creighton goes on to say that facultatively polygynous species have female mate guarding saying that those in the polygynous group risk losing paternal care and extra-pair copulation, while monogamous group only risk extra-pair copulation (2000). Although this research may draw a not so strong conclusion it does raise the question: Are humans socially monogamous or polygamous?

• Buss, David M. (2002).Human Mate Guarding. Neuroendocrinology Letters. 23, 23-29. (http://www.homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/Group/BussLAB/pdffiles/Human%20Mate%20Guarding.pdf)

• Buss, David M. (2000).The evolution of happiness. American Psychologist. 55, 15-23. (http://0-search.ebscohost.com.linus.lmu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pdh&AN=amp-55-1-15&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live&scope=site)

• Creighton, Emma (2000).Female mate guarding: No evidence in a socially monogamous species.. Animal Behaviour. 59, 201. (http://0-www.sciencedirect.com.linus.lmu.edu/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6W9W-45JB6YM-1G&_user=945462&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2000&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000048964&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=945462&md5=2a5f837257ca81c63ee06e4255760275)

• Lazarus, John, Inglis, Ian R, & Torrance, Rebecca L.L.F (2004). Mate Guarding Conflict, Extra-Pair Courtship And Signalling in the Harlequin Duck, Histrionicus Histrionicus. Behaviour. 141, 1061-1078. (http://0-search.ebscohost.com.linus.lmu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eoah&AN=6525695&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live&scope=site)

• Thomson, Jaime W., Patel, Shilpa , Platek, Steven M., & Shackelford, Todd K. (2007). Sex Differences in Implicit Association and Attentional Demands for Information about Infidelity. Evolutionary Psychology, 5, 569-583. (http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/ep05569583.pdf)
  
  

Assuring your partner that he is the father of your children

Soliciting gifts

BOX Diamonds:  sign of male commitment and status Article excerpt: Have You Ever Tried to Sell a Diamond?  By Edward Jay Epstein http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/print/198202/diamond  ...In their subsequent investigation of the American diamond market, the staff of N. W. Ayer found that since the end of World War I, in 1919, the total amount of diamonds sold in America, measured in carats, had declined by 50 percent; at the same time, the quality of the diamonds, measured in dollar value, had declined by nearly 100 percent. An Ayer memo concluded that the depressed state of the market for diamonds was "the result of the economy, changes in social attitudes and the promotion of competitive luxuries." Although it could do little about the state of the economy, N. W. Ayer suggested that through a well-orchestrated advertising and public-relations campaign it could have a significant impact on the "social attitudes of the public at large and thereby channel American spending toward larger and more expensive diamonds instead of "competitive luxuries." Specifically, the Ayer study stressed the need to strengthen the association in the public's mind of diamonds with romance. Since "young men buy over 90% of all engagement rings" it would be crucial to inculcate in them the idea that diamonds were a gift of love: the larger and finer the diamond, the greater the expression of love. Similarly, young women had to be encouraged to view diamonds as an integral part of any romantic courtship. Since the Ayer plan to romanticize diamonds required subtly altering the public's picture of the way a man courts -- and wins -- a woman, the advertising agency strongly suggested exploiting the relatively new medium of motion pictures. Movie idols, the paragons of romance for the mass audience, would be given diamonds to use as their symbols of indestructible love. In addition, the agency suggested offering stories and society photographs to selected magazines and newspapers which would reinforce the link between diamonds and romance. Stories would stress the size of diamonds that celebrities presented to their loved ones, and photographs would conspicuously show the glittering stone on the hand of a well-known woman. ... In its 1947 strategy plan, the advertising agency strongly emphasized a psychological approach. "We are dealing with a problem in mass psychology. We seek to ... strengthen the tradition of the diamond engagement ring -- to make it a psychological necessity capable of competing successfully at the retail level with utility goods and services...." It defined as its target audience "some 70 million people 15 years and over whose opinion we hope to influence in support of our objectives." N. W. Ayer outlined a subtle program that included arranging for lecturers to visit high schools across the country. "All of these lectures revolve around the diamond engagement ring, and are reaching thousands of girls in their assemblies, classes and informal meetings in our leading educational institutions," the agency explained in a memorandum to De Beers. The agency had organized, in 1946, a weekly service called "Hollywood Personalities," which provided 125 leading newspapers with descriptions of the diamonds worn by movie stars. And it continued its efforts to encourage news coverage of celebrities displaying diamond rings as symbols of romantic involvement. In 1947, the agency commissioned a series of portraits of "engaged socialites." The idea was to create prestigious "role models" for the poorer middle-class wage-earners. The advertising agency explained, in its 1948 strategy paper, "We spread the word of diamonds worn by stars of screen and stage, by wives and daughters of political leaders, by any woman who can make the grocer's wife and the mechanic's sweetheart say 'I wish I had what she has.'" De Beers needed a slogan for diamonds that expressed both the theme of romance and legitimacy. An N. W. Ayer copywriter came up with the caption "A Diamond Is Forever," which was scrawled on the bottom of a picture of two young lovers on a honeymoon. Even though diamonds can in fact be shattered, chipped, discolored, or incinerated to ash, the concept of eternity perfectly captured the magical qualities that the advertising agency wanted to attribute to diamonds. Within a year, "A Diamond Is Forever" became the official motto of De Beers. ... To exploit this desire for conspicuous display, the agency specifically recommended, "Promote the diamond as one material object which can reflect, in a very personal way, a man's ... success in life." Since this campaign would be addressed to upwardly mobile men, the advertisements ideally "should have the aroma of tweed, old leather and polished wood which is characteristic of a good club." Toward the end of the 1950s, N. W. Ayer reported to De Beers that twenty years of advertisements and publicity had had a pronounced effect on the American psyche. "Since 1939 an entirely new generation of young people has grown to marriageable age," it said. "To this new generation a diamond ring is considered a necessity to engagements by virtually everyone." The message had been so successfully impressed on the minds of this generation that those who could not afford to buy a diamond at the time of their marriage would "defer the purchase" rather than forgo it.  ... N. W. Ayer learned from an opinion poll it commissioned from the firm of Daniel Yankelovich, Inc. that the gift of a diamond contained an important element of surprise. "Approximately half of all diamond jewelry that the men have given and the women have received were given with zero participation or knowledge on the part of the woman recipient," the study pointed out. N. W Ayer analyzed this "surprise factor": Women are in unanimous agreement that they want to be surprised with gifts.... They want, of course, to be surprised for the thrill of it. However, a deeper, more important reason lies behind this desire.... "freedom from guilt." Some of the women pointed out that if their husbands enlisted their help in purchasing a gift (like diamond jewelry), their practical nature would come to the fore and they would be compelled to object to the purchase. Women were not totally surprised by diamond gifts: some 84 percent of the men in the study "knew somehow" that the women wanted diamond jewelry. The study suggested a two-step "gift-process continuum": first, "the man 'learns' diamonds are o.k." fom the woman; then, "at some later point in time, he makes the diamond purchase decision" to surprise the woman. Through a series of "projective" psychological questions, meant "to draw out a respondent's innermost feelings about diamond jewelry," the study attempted to examine further the semi-passive role played by women in receiving diamonds. The male-female roles seemed to resemble closely the sex relations in a Victorian novel. "Man plays the dominant, active role in the gift process. Woman's role is more subtle, more oblique, more enigmatic...." The woman seemed to believe there was something improper about receiving a diamond gift. Women spoke in interviews about large diamonds as "flashy, gaudy, overdone" and otherwise inappropriate. Yet the study found that "Buried in the negative attitudes ... lies what is probably the primary driving force for acquiring them. Diamonds are a traditional and conspicuous signal of achievement, status and success." It noted, for example, "A woman can easily feel that diamonds are 'vulgar' and still be highly enthusiastic about receiving diamond jewelry." The element of surprise, even if it is feigned, plays the same role of accommodating dissonance in accepting a diamond gift as it does in prime sexual seductions: it permits the woman to pretend that she has not actively participated in the decision. She thus retains both her innocence—and the diamond.

Courtship Feeding

Sneaky solution: cuckoldry

In nearly every culture that anthropologists have studied, some females have engaged in extramarital copulations of one sort or another. One of the hypotheses for why a woman would cuckold her mate is to help solve the problem of resource investment vis a vis getting a high quality, genetically superior mate. Long term mateships tend to be assortative—men and women pair off into dyads in which each member has approximately the same reproductive value. However, if a medium-status woman has the opportunity of mating with a very high-status male, even just once, she gets access to a set of genes that may be superior to her mate’s. Her medium status mate continue to invest in this offspring as though it were his own.

Both males and females engage in extra-pair copulations to guard against a current mate’s low fertility or to evaluate the quality of a future mate. There are some consequences that come with extra-pair copulations in this species; one of consequence is an unstable pair bond, which may leads to a mate switch. Females are more at risk for punishment if they engage in extra-pair copulations because the loss incurred by a male raising another male's offspring is high. Thus males should behave in ways that either prevent or punish cheating behavior by a female. Females may have to deal with specific consequences when engaging in extra-pair copulations, such as reduced partner’s investment, divorce, retaliation, violence and injury from mates. They also risk harassment from extra-pair males.

On the other hand, males increase their fitness. The reason for this is that males are able to invest less in each individual offspring, and by mating with several females, diversify the genotype (and presumably the survival and reproductive success) of his offspring. Because of this, males are more likely to benefit from extra-pair copulations.

However, females can benefit from extra-pair copulations because such behavior may act as insurance against mate infertility, increase the fitness of offspring by producing genetically diverse young, and increase the possibility of future mate acquisition. A female also benefits when she engages in extra-pair copulations that aid her in gaining access to resources.

Tryjanowski, Antczak, and Hromada (2006) conducted a study on extra-pair copulations in the great grey shrike, Lanius excubitor. They discovered that extra pair fertilization of a social partner could result in punishment, or reduced paternal investment. They also proposed that the structure of a habitat is what influences the possibility of seeking and obtaining and extra-pair copulation. They tested their study with a the great grey shrike, which is a socially monogamous, passerine bird, living in semi-open landscapes. This bird nests in a tree or thorny bush in semi-open farmland with a lot of meadows and fields with scattered woodlots, single trees and bushes. Before females mate with a male she expects a nuptial gift and whether or not she mates with him depends on the display of the nuptial gift. The female also controls the copulation, as well as the place where the copulation takes place. When a female chooses the copulation place she has a goal in mind when doing so—her within-pair copulation can serve as an advertisement to inform neighboring males about her fertility. A Female tendency to engage in extra-pair copulations is influenced by factors such as the experience of a social mate in mate guarding, density, age, and the quality of potential extra-pair males. The results of the study showed that extra-pair and within-pair copulations occurred in different places and that individuals of both sexes chose more secret places for extra-pair than within-pair copulations.

Hayes (2007), observed extra-pair copulations by Sandhill cranes. Sandhill cranes are long-lived, highly territorial, and form long term bonds. Incubation takes thirty days and both members participate equally in it. Copulations between this species can happen before the breeding season. Frequent copulation serves as something to reinforce long-term bonds. In terms of extra-pair copulations the females solicit males while their mates are incubating. Female’s mates with two different males, going back and forth between the two approximately twenty times during a twelve month period. The female will end up nesting with only one of the two males. He observed striking differences between males and females when it came to the benefits gained by participating in extra-pair copulations. Females appeared to use extra-pair copulations to increase reproductive fitness of her offspring by acquiring good genes or morphological traits, or to gain access to resources, while the males increased their number of offspring.

Walsh, Wilhelm, Cameron-Macmillan & Storey (2006) observed the behaviors of extra-pair copulations in the socially monogamous, long-lived seabirds, common murres. They found that all successful copulations required the cooperation of a female and that benefits of successful copulations accrue primarily to females, including attracting potential high quality mates. They also found that individual females engaged in extra-pair copulations under two circumstances: before they reunited with their mates and when they were in the process of re-pairing. This was done mostly in situations where the females are attempting to re-pair as a result of divorce or mate death. Some factors, like a lack of high food abundance, reduce a female’s reproductive success, so ecological conditions may be a factor that increase the likelihood of extra-pair copulation.

Sneaky solution: confusing paternity among several males

Being a mistress, a ’kept woman’

Promiscuity

Title: Promiscuity Predicted by Absence of the Father Contributor: Jennifer Busico Class: Psyc 452, Spring 2009 

Based on evolution it has been proven beneficial for women to be sexual choosey due to the amount of parental investment that is required to rear a child. Women go through 9 months of pregnancy, lactation (which lasted about 2 years for women in the EEA), and the socialization of their offspring. Every copulation is an opportunity for increased fitness; the potential for pregnancy. Therefore, if a woman is going to commit herself to raising a child, she needs to properly examine the resources and parental investment of the partner. Therefore, the behaviors of females who are sexually indiscriminate and promiscuous are not acting in accordance with reproductive success. However, there has been speculation as to the early father-daughter relationship affecting a female’s future sexual strategy because, one’s early social experiences impact an individual’s personality and behavior as an adult.

Life history theory is the study of life cycles and life history through the integration of evolutionary, ecological, and socio-developmental perspectives. Grainger (2003) indicates that infants are born with a predisposition to demonstrate attachment-seeking behaviors and develop goals and predictions based on the responses of the caregivers. However, it is important to remember that genetics account for 50% variation in most personality traits. Therefore, according to the integrated model, an individual is comprised of both genetic heritage and the environmental habitat. The use of the life history theory enabled Kruger and Fisher (2008) to properly examine the lasting affects of attachment styles, specifically the relationship a daughter has with her father. Bogaret (2005) did not find significant findings for the absence of the mother only the father. Children who experience a secure attachment, love and appreciation by the father, will engage in long lasting, monogamous, happy, and trusting relationships. Conversely, children who experience insecure attachment, lack of affection and absence by the father, will have short lasting and multiple negative relationships. Furthermore, parental instability (e.g. an absent father) is associated with early pubertal onset in females (Bogaret, 2005). In addition, these females will show early sexual activity and, according to Boothroyd and Perrett (2008), will perceive themselves as being of low mate quality. Thus, they begin to adjust, often lowering, their standards for their partner aspirations.

Grainger (2003) refers to this process as the father-absence theory, which states the “presence or absence of the father in the natural home provides the developing female with information regarding the likelihood of her finding an investing male to mate with” (p. 133). If the biological father is not present in the household the child learns that parental investment is unnecessary or unlikely. Subsequently, the child will follow the reproductive strategy learned at home, viewing little parental investment, a “fast and early strategy,” which is described as promiscuity (p. 133). There is a difference between those fathers who are absent because of death and those who are absent because of divorce. When the male has died the mother idealizes the role of the husband to the children, communicating positive regard for the father. However, when a father is absent as a result of a divorce, the mother will often derogate or disregard his attempts to be active in the child’s life. Similar behavior is seen with the presence of a step-father. Though the non-biological male may depict a positive and loving figure, he does not positively affect the sexual strategies of a female. The female will still engage in casual sexual strategies in adulthood. Boothryody and Perrett (2008) found that the importance lies in the presence of the biological father only. The efforts of a step-father to provide the child with an image of a heavy investing, loving male is ineffective.

Furthermore, the preference in facial features is affected by the absence or presence of a father in the early stages of development as stated by Boothroyd and Perrett (2008). Women who grew up with an absent or unloving father are more inclined to begin a relationship with a less masculine male because their standard is significantly lowered. As stated previously, women who come from an insecure attachment, which Kruger and Fisher refer to were as a cad, engage in behaviors that attract males who show a decrease in genetically fitness. The male who contains more feminized physical features provides the female with a signal that there is a lack of testosterone, which is a sign of low genetic fitness. Moreover, the future partner may be a cad himself, thus the female is perpetuating the relationship she had with her father. Women who grew up with a present father will engage in relationships with males who contain masculine physical features, a good sign of genetic fitness. Their future partner’s are more likely to be what Kruger and Fisher refer to as dads, loving and present male figures.

The future male not only has an impact on the relationship with the female but the future offspring as well. Depending on the type of attachment a female has in childhood, this will be good predictor on the type of male she will choose for her children. Kruger and Fisher (2008) found that women who come from insecure attachments have negative expectations of their parenting abilities because of their lack of a role model figure and they will have negative expectations of their children. Thus, the female is setting the stage for insecure attachment in her own offspring. The perspective male will be a cad and she will withdraw from the children due to her insecurities regarding her parental abilities. The cycle of insecure females attracting low genetic fitness, non-attached males will continue in the offspring. However, a mediator can intercede to break the destructive cycle.

Boothroyd and Perrett (2008) were able to distinguish between two types of absent-father women. The first group of women are females who are protected during the earlier stages of childhood from the adverse effects of a father’s absence. Moreover, these women resemble father present women. However, there is no evidence as to the preventative factor that intercedes. Though as stated it previously it is not the positive figure of a step-father. One possible explanation could be psychotherapy. It has been proven that the adjustment of self-statements with the help of a therapist can enable an individual to have a more positive and accurate schema from which they view the world and themselves. The second group of women those who are less likely to develop long lasting and stable adult partnerships. These are the types of women expected to be seen as a result of having a cad for a father.

Researchers have proven that the presence of a father or the absence of a cad will affect the mating strategy a female uses to attract a partner. The female who has the absent father will engage in promiscuous behaviors and will attract a cad partner. The female who has a present father will engage in a monogamous and healthy relationship with a dad. It is important to remember these sexual strategies are unconscious to the female. The female is not aware of the basis of her behaviors. This provides good evidence as to the reasoning of why women are sexually discriminate and gage the amount of parental investment a mate will offer. The result of picking a cad for a mate is destructive, while picking a dad for a father is constructive.



References

Bogaret, A. (2005). Age at puberty and father absence in a national probability sample. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 541-546. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WH0-4F9737K-3&_user=945462&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000048964&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=945462&md5=7fd82ed0740d045addb5bdf249066510

Boothroyd, L., & Perrett, D. (2008). Father absence, parent-daughter relationships and partner preferences. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 6(3), 187-205. http://www.akademiai.com/content/9777023881871310/

Grainger, S. (2003). Family background and female sexual behavior a test of the father-absence theory in Merseyside. Human Nature Journal, 15(2), 133-145. http://www.springerlink.com/content/qe62udhrb69r0grf/

Kruger, D., & Fisher, M. (2008). Women’s life history attributes associated with preferences in mating relationships. Evolutionary Psychology, 6(2), 289-302.  www.epjournal.net/filestore/EP06289302.pdf

Related Sites

http://www.hi-ho.ne.jp/taku77/refer/coney.txt Article discussing fatherhood as a deterrent from promiscuity

http://www.interactivedadmagazine.com/dadsdaughters.htm Article discussing ways fathers can be more present in their daughters lives and why it is important

http://www.parenting.org/archive/precious/parenting/2003/Mar03_father-daughter.asp Discussing the 4 types of dads that exist

http://www.uwgb.edu/psychology/psichi/ppt/APS_04Lange.ppt Powerpoint slide of a journal discussing the importance of father-daughter relationships

Prostitution

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